John  Sv;ett 


PUBLISHERS. 


FOURTEEN     WEEKS 


IN 


ZOO  LOGY. 


BY 


J.  DORMAN    STEELE,  PH.  D.,  F.  G.  S., 

AUTHOR    OF    THE    FOURTEEN-WEEKS    SERIES    IN    NATURAL    SCIENCE 


Nature,  the  old  nurse,  took 
Tne  chila  upon  her  Tcnee, 
Saying,    'Here  is  a  story-'boo'k 
Thy  Father  hath  written  for  thee.  '  ' 

Longfellow's  "Tribute  to  Agassiz 


A.    S.     BARNES    &    COMPANY, 

NEW   YORK   AND    CHICAGO. 

(Copyright,  1876.) 


•  FOURTEEN-WEEKS    SERIES  A  N  " 

•. :  :•"": "-"  :"•.'**::..:  /•*•.  • .  •*      IN 

NATURAL    SCIENCE, 

BY 

J.     DORMAN    STEELE,    PH.D.,    F.G.S. 

New   Physics.  Human   Physiology. 

New   Chemistry.  Zoology. 

Popular  Geology.  Botany. 

New   Descriptive   Astronomy. 

Hygienic  Physiology. 

Hygienic    Physiology,   Abridged. 

The  Publishers  can  supply  (to  Teachers  only)  a  Key  containing  Answers 
to  the  Questions  and  Problems  in  Steele's  entire  Series. 


BARNES'    HISTORICAL     SERIES, 

ON     THE     PLAN     OK 

STEELE'S    FOURTEEN-WEEKS     IN     THE     SCIENCES. 

A  Brief   History  of  the   United   States. 
A   Brief  History  of  France. 

A   Brief  History  of  Ancient   Peoples. 

A   Brief  History  of  Mediaeval   and    Modern   Peoples. 
A   Brief  General    History. 

A  Brief  History  of  Greece. 

A  Brief  History  of  Rome. 

A  Popular  History  of  the  United  States. 


PREFACE. 


work  is  prepared  upon  the  same  general  plan  as  the 
preceding  books  of  the  Series.  Among  the  principal 
features  are:  Brevity;  directness  of  statement;  such  a 
presentation  of  the  subject  as  will  lead  the  pupil  to  love  the 
study;  frequent  foot-notes,  containing  anecdotes,  curious 
facts,  explanations,  etc. ;  a  uniform  system  of  analysis  in 
bold  paragraph  titles ;  and  a  gradual  introduction  of  scientific 
terms  and  language,  so  as  to  fit  the  scholar  to  read  zoological 
literature. 

Believing  that  a  description  of  a  new  animal  without  a  cut 
is  useless,  the  author  has  aimed  to  give  a  figure  of  each  one 
mentioned;  accompanying  it,  where  necessary,  with  minor 
illustrations  of  functional  peculiarities.  In  order  not  to  dis- 
courage the  beginner  with  dry  and  dull  anatomical  details, 
the  text  is  largely  occupied  with  biography,  telling  "how 
animals  act,  think,  and  are  mutually  related ;"  for  a  fact  con- 
cerning the  adaptation,  habits,  etc.,  is  as  valuable  and  far 
more  interesting  to  the  young,  than  one  about  some  unpro- 
nounceable bone  or  muscle. 

To  lead,  however,  to  closer  observation,  physiological  dis- 
tinctions are  grouped  in  frequent  paragraphs  under  the  head 
of  General  Characteristics,  a  section  is  given  on  Comparative 
Anatomy,  and  numerous  cuts  of  skeletons  will  enable  any 
teacher  familiar  with  the  subject  to  continue  it  as  desired. 

The  limits  of  the  book  compelled  a  selection  to  be  made 
from  the  numberless  animal  forms.  Every  order,  however, 
is  named,  with  most  of  its  families  and  many  of  the  princi- 
pal genera,  each  one  illustrated  by  a  cut  and  description  of  a 


6  PREFACE. 


spefciesi  •/'Fjfyjes  for  classification  precede,  in  general, 
every  cliyjpjpn,  These^will  enable  the  pupil  to  refer  any 
tiiiwwil  ;tw  jts'oir^e'r/d'iiely'in  many  instances,  to  its  family  and 
genus ;  though  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  charac- 
teristics given  are  applicable  to  the  genera  and  species 
described  in  the  text,  and  not  necessarily  to  all  belonging  to 
the  family.  In  addition  to  these  analyses,  a  tabular  view  of 
all  the  animals  treated  is  inserted  in  the  Appendix. 

It  has  not  seemed  best  to  define  each  term  in  the  text,  but 
the  Index  is  very  full,  and  contains  the  explanation,  defini- 
tion, and  reference  of  every  ordinary  zoological  word.  As  far 
as  possible,  each  scientific  name  is  followed,  in  parenthesis, 
by  its  translation.  To  guide  in  pronouncing  the  titles  of 
the  cut,  the  quantity  of  the  penult  is  carefully  given. 

Ample  directions  to  the  beginner  for  collecting  and  pre- 
serving specimens  are  given  at  the  close  of  each  division. 
These,  with  the  hints  in  the  foot-notes,  will  enable  the  pupil 
to  undertake  the  study  of  Nature  understand  ingly. 

The  author  would  hereby  acknowledge  the  vital  assistance 
rendered  in  the  preparation  of  this  work  by  J.  W.  P.  Jenks, 
A.  M.,  Professor  of  Agricultural  Zoology  and  Curator  of  the 
Museum,  Brown  "University.  His  life-long  experience  and 
remarkable  success  in  teaching  Zoology,  together  with  the 
wide  range  of  his  observations,  have  alone  rendered  this  book 
possible.  Thanks  are  returned  to  J.  W.  Armstrong,  D.  D., 
President  Normal  School,  Fredonia,  N.  Y. ;  F.  C.  Clark,  M.  D., 
Providence,  E.  I. ;  Charles  W.  Greene,  A.  M. ;  Prof.  D.  S. 
Kellicott,  Ph.  M.,  Buffalo  State  Normal  School ;  and  S.  G. 
Love,  A.  M.,  Supt.  Schools,  Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  who  have 
read  the  proofs,  and  furnished  many  excellent  suggestions. 

Many  of  the  cuts  were  taken  from  nature  ;  the  others  were 
selected  from  the  works  of  Owen,  Carpenter,  Wood,  Milne- 
Edwards,  Jones,  Woodward,  the  Pictorial  Museum,  etc.  A 
number  of  our  wood-cat  illustrations  are  from  Prof.  Sanborn 
Tenney's  Natural  History  Series. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 


rpHE  Tables  are  not,  at  first,  to  be  committed  to  memory, 
-L  but  only  read  to  give  a  general  view  of  the  subject,  and 
afterward  learned  by  a  constant  reference  to  them  as  each 
class,  family,  etc.,  is  taken  up  in  order.  Thus,  the  large 
table  on  page  13  should  be  in  constant  use  during  the  term, 
and  the  last  part  would  not  be  fully  understood  until  the 
book  is  finished.  The  text  contains  nothing  which  the  cut 
can  better  exhibit ;  hence  the  figure  should  be  studied  care- 
fully. The  teacher  is  advised  to  require  his  pupils  to  draw 
on  the  board  an  outline  of  each  animal,  showing  its  size  as 
obtained  from  the  scale  under  the  cut,  and  every  peculiarity 
in  the  structure  of  its  teeth,  claws,  hoofs,  bill,  etc.  This 
should  be  followed  by  a  familiar  description,  drawn  from  the 
cut,  the  text,  the  teacher's  instructions,  and  every  other 
source  of  information — above  all,  the  creature  itself,  where 
it  can  be  secured.  (See  note,  p.  114.) 

Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  make  original  researches. 
They  can  prepare  (see  page  14)  the  skeleton  of  a  cat,  dog,  or 
other  small  animal.  They  can  secure  common  birds,  squir- 
rels, frogs,  snakes,  and  insects;  and  a  little  practice  will 
often  develop  a  taste  for  curing  and  mounting  which  will  be 
as  instructive  as  delightful.  They  can  make  collections  of 
birds'  eggs  and  nests.  Even  the  careful  study  of  a  common 
fowl  or  an  oyster,  a  bird  building  its  nest,  an  ox  chewing  its 


8  SUGGESTIONS    TO    TEACHERS. 

cud,  a  spider  spinning  its  web,  a  cat  catching  a  mouse,  the 
varied  paces  of  a  horse,  or  the  metamorphosis  of  a  caterpillar, 
will  give  a  fresh  zest  to  the  work.  If  any  opportunity  offers, 
the  class  should  visit  a  menagerie,  book  in  hand,  name  the 
animals,  and  verify  the  statements  of  the  text. 

The  knowledge  of  the  teacher  should  be  sufficient  to  fill 
out  and  supplement  the  brief  descriptions  of  a  text-book. 
The  following  works  will  furnish  additional  facts,  and  aid  in 
further  investigations.  Pupils  may  often  be  persuaded  to 
procure  copies  as  a  foundation  for  their  library :  Packard's 
"  Guide  to  the  Study  of  the  Insects ;"  Dana's  "  Corals  and 
Coral  Islands;"  Wood's  "Natural  History,"  and  " Homes 
without  Hands ;"  Coues's  "  Key  to  North  American  Birds ;" 
Baird,  Brewer,  and  Ridgway's  "North  American  Birds;" 
Agassiz'  "  Sea-side  Studies;"  St.  George  Mivart's  "The  Com- 
mon Frog;"  Allen's  "  Mammalia  of  Massachusetts ;"  Samuels' 
"  Birds  of  New  England  ;"  Carpenter's  "  Comparative  Physiol- 
ogy ;"  Figuier's  popular  works  on  Natural  History ;  Jordan's 
"Vertebrates  of  North  America;"  Orton's  "Comparative 
Zoology,"  etc.  The  back  volumes  of  the  "American  Nat- 
uralist," "Popular  Science  Monthly,"  and  "Harper's  Maga- 
zine" (see  Natural  History  in  the  Index  volume),  contain 
numerous  excellent  articles,  many  of  them  finely  illustrated. 
The  above-named  books,  as  well  as  a  microscope,  so  essential 
to  efficient  instruction,  can  be  obtained  of  the  publishers  of 
this  work,  Messrs.  A.  S.  Barnes  &  Co.,  Ill  and  113  William 
St.,  New  York.  Specimens  of  all  the  typical  species  of  ani- 
mals, as  well  as  many  beautiful  casts,  are  constantly  kept  for 
sale  by  Prof.  Henry  A.  Ward,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


I.    INTRODUCTION 11 

HINTS  FOR  PREPARING   SKELETONS 14 

II.    THE    VERTEBRATES. 

1.  SUBKINGDOM  VERTEBRATES 15 

THE  MAMMALS  16 

THE  BIRDS ..110 

MIGRATIONS  OF  BIRDS 162 

HINTS  FOR  PRESERVING  SKINS  OF  MAMMALS  AND  BIRDS.  163 

THE  REPTILES * 165 

THE  AMPHIBIANS 179 

THE  FISHES 184 

HOMOLOGIES   AND    ANALOGIES   OF   THE   VERTEBRATES 199 

HINTS  FOR  STUDYING  REPTILES,  AMPHIBIANS  AND  FlSHES.    202 

III.    THE     INVERTEBRATES. 

2.  SUBKINGDOM    ARTICULATES ....*... 203 

THE  INSECTS ^ 204 

HINTS  FOR  COLLECTING  INSECTS .,<.....  i 224 

THE  MYRIAPODS .;..**...,.««.....,.. 225 

THE  SPIDERS ..../.«.,«... . . « , ,,*......,.  226 

THE  CRUSTACEANS  ...»*....«.«...,,,.,  ,r  .*.....<.....  229 
THE  WORMS.  .  .  235 


10  CONTENTS. 

PAGB 

3.  SUBKINGDOM    MOLLUSCANS . "...  241 

THE  CEPHALOPODS 242 

THE  GASTEROPODS 244 

THE  LAMELLIBRANCHIATES 250 

THE  BRACHIOPODS 255 

THE  TUNICATES 255 

THE  POLYZOANS 257 

4.  SUBKINGDOM    ECHINODERMS 259 

THE  HOLOTHOROIDS 259 

THE  ECHINOIDS 260 

THE  ASTEROIDS 261 

THE  CRINOIDS 263 

5.  SUBKINGDOM    CCELENTERATES 265 

THE  CTENOPHORANS 265 

THE  ANTHOZOANS 265 

THE  HYDROZOANS 269 

THE  SPONGES 273 

6.  SUBKINGDOM    PROTOZOANS 274 

THE  INFUSORIANS 274 

THE  RHIZOPODS 275 

THE  GBEGARINIDANS 277 


IV.     APPENDIX. 

TABLE  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM 278 

INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 298 


INTEODUOTION. 


fV  OOLOGY  (zoon,  animal ;  %os,  a  discourse)  treats  of  animals. 
/  J  It  includes  every  variety,  from  man  to  the  tiniest  micro- 
scopic creature.  Recent  investigations  in  Comparative  Anatomy 
seem  to  indicate  that  all  the  varied  forms  of  life  so  shade  into 
one  another  as  to  furnish  no  sharply-marked  dividing  lines :  and 
that  could  the  animals  which  have  become  extinct  be  grouped 
with  those  now  living,  the  entire  series  from  man  to  the  animal- 
cule would  present  an  unbroken  succession.  This  panoramic  view 
would  give  an  idea  of  unity  in  the  same  sense  as  when  we  speak 
of  a  herd  of  cattle,  though  the  individuals  differ  in  size,  color,  and 
form ;  or  of  a  landscape,  in  which  there  is  no  break  in  the  undu- 
lating outline  of  the  far-off  horizon,  though  it  include  river, 
mountain,  and  valley. 

Classification. — In  order  to  understand  Zoology  clearly,  it 
is  necessary  to  separate  this  vast  ANIMAL  KING-DOM,  as 
it  is  called,  into  different  groups.  If  we  examine  the  general 
structure  of  the  various  animals,  and  bring  together  those  which 
have  similar  peculiarities — as,  for  instance,  a  back-bone — we  shall 
form  the  first  grand  divisions,  which  are  styled  SUBKING- 
1) QMS.  There  are  only  six  of  these  typical  ideas;  each,  however, 
developed  by  the  all-wise  Creator  in  wonderful  diversity. 

Observing  the  characteristics  of  the  animals  composing  a  sub- 
kingdom,  particularly  with  regard  to  their  physiological  distinc- 
tions— as,  for  instance,  whether  they  are  covered  with  hair  or 
feathers — we  reach  the  divisions  of  each  subkingdom,  which  we 
designate  as  CLASSES. 

Observing  the  characteristics  of  the  individuals  of  each  Class 
with  regard  to  their  adaptation  to  their  mode  of  life — as,  for 


ZOOLOGY. 


instance,  their  manner  of  procuring  their  food — we  reach  the 
divisions  of  each  class,  which  we  designate  as  ORDERS. 

Observing  the  characteristics  of  the  individuals  of  each  Order 
with  regard  to  their  general  form — as,  for  instance,  the  shape  of 
the  bill  or  structure  of  the  tongue — we  reach  the  divisions  of  each 
order,  which  we  designate  as  FAMILIES. 

Observing  the  characteristics  of  the  individuals  of  each  Family 
with  regard  to  details  of  execution  in  special  parts — as,  for 
instance,  the  number  and  shape  of  the  teeth — we  reach  the 
divisions  of  each  family,  which  we  designate  as  GENERA  (sing., 
Genus). 

Observing  the  characteristics  of  the  individuals  of  each  Genus 
with  regard  to  identity  in  every  essential  particular — as,  for 
instance,  color,  size,  corresponding  measurements,  etc. — we  reach 
the  divisions  of  each  genus,  which  we  designate  as  Species. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  general  plan  of  classifying  the 
Animal  Kingdom : 

I  Species  1. 
Genus  1.  -<        " 


r  ORDER  1. 


CD 
2 
^ 


SUBKINGDOM  1. 


SUBKINGDOM  2. 
SUBKINGDOM  3. 
SUBKINGPOM  4. 
SUBKINGDOM  5. 
SUBKINGDOM  6. 


CLASS  1.  - 


FAMILY  1. 


Genus  2. 


'2. 
3. 

I  Species  1. 

'      etc. 


IFAMILV2. 


Genus  3. 


Genus  1. 


j 

1 


•  Species  1. 
"  2. 
41  3. 


{Species  1. 
"  2. 
etc. 

Divided     as     above 
into  genera,  which 
are  subdivided  in- 
*•     to  species. 

CLASS  2.   Divided  into  Orders,  Families,  Genera  and  Species, 
etc. 


Divided  into  Classes,  Orders,  Families,  Ac. 


INTRODUCTION. 


13 


Particular  names,  which  are,  usually,  descriptive  of  some  pecu- 
liarity on  which  the  classification  is  based,  have  been  given  to 
each  of  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 
Thus,  the  first  subkingdom  is  called  the  Vertebrate,  as  it  com- 
prises all  animals  which  have  a  vertebral  column  or  backbone ; 
the  second  subkingdom  is  termed  the  Articulate,  since  it  con- 
tains those  having  a  jointed  body  and  limbs.  The  names  and 
a  general  description  of  the  six  subkingdoms  are  given  in  the 
following  table : 


A  brain,  a  spinal  marrow,  ganglions,  etc.  ;  an  inter-  f  kingd"m"    1 

Hf/l.vnynnJit 

nal  jointed  skeleton  ;    red  blood  j   heart  ;  five  J    Verte-    J    Birds, 

Senses.                                                                                   brate           Reptiles. 

I  Animals.    I     Fishes. 

Animals 

Ganglions  and 

NERVOUS  GANGLIONS  UNITED  ON  « 

with  a 

nerves  only  ; 

A  MIDDLE    LINE    IN  A  SORT  OF 

2d  Sub-     , 

Examples: 

nervous 

no  internal 

LONGITUDINAL      CHAIN,      BODY 
DIVIDED  INTO    RINGS  WITH  AN 

kingdom,         Insects, 
Articu-    -|    Lobsters, 

system 

skeleton  ; 

EXTERNAL    SKELETON     FORMED 

late             Worms, 

ZJ 

composed 

blood  usually 
white  ; 

BY    THE    SKIN,   MORE    OR    LESS 
HARDENED. 

Animals,    v        etc. 

o 

Q 

a  heart  ; 

NERVOUS  GANGLIONS  PLACED  IN  ' 
DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF  THE  BODY, 

3d  Sub-     , 
kingdom, 

:  Examples. 
Cuttle- 

CD 

senses  more  or 

AND    BODY    SOFT   WITHOUT    EX- 

H  Mollus-    -1 

fishes, 

Z 

less  incom- 

TERNAL  SKELETON,  BUT  USUAL- 

can 

Clams, 

y^ 
^^ 

.11 

LY  PROTECTED   BY  A  SHELL. 

Animals. 

Snails,  etc. 

v.       plete. 

4th  Sub-   • 

Examples: 

^~ 

1  kingdom, 

Sea- 

^^* 

1    Echino- 

urchins, 

3E 

DISTINCT  FROM  BODY-CAVITY.       J    derma. 

'      Star- 

2 

Animals  of   a    radiated 

tous 

fishes, 

UJ 

ac 

structure.*  Alimen- 
tary Canal 

L  Animals.  •> 

5th  Sub-   •" 
kingdom, 

etc. 
Examples- 
Jelly- 
fishes, 

J         ' 

i— 

NOT  DISTINCT  FROM  BODY-CAVITY.    . 

Ccelen- 

• 

terous 
Animals. 

Hydras. 

Sponge-, 

f  6th  Sub-  " 

Animals  very  minute,  of  simple  structure.                     \    Prole™' 

Example 

*•                                                          I  zoans- 

Rhizo 
'    pods,  etc. 

*  The  Echinoderms  and  the  Coelenterates  were  formerly  assigned  to  a  single 
Subkingdom— RADIATES— and  are  often  called  by  that  name. 


HINTS     FOR     PREPARING 

•> 

LIGAMENTAL    SKELETONS    OF    THE    VERTEBRATES. 


First  remove  all  the  muscle  that  can  be  conveniently  taken  off 
with  knife  and  scissors,  but  leave  the  ligaments  around  the  joints. 
The  specimen  should  next  be  macerated  (soaked)  in  soft  water,  with 
the  addition  of  a  little  soda  or  potash,  changing  the  water  daily  for  a 
week,  and  then  leaving  it  till  the  remaining  muscle  can  be  scraped 
off  with  the  finger-nail  or  a  tooth-brush,  and  the  rotted  brain  be  rinsed 
out  with  water.  At  this  stage,  while  the  skeleton  is  held  beneath  the 
surface  of  clean  water,  all  fibres  may  be  snipped  off  with  scissors 
without  injuring  the  ligaments,  and  the  bones  thoroughly  cleaned 
without  scraping  them  with  any  hard  instrument.  Next  run  a  wire 
down  the  spinal  cavity  and  bend  the  backbone  into  any  desired  posi- 
tion. Finally,  hang  up  the  skeleton  by  threads  till  dry. 

Any  animal  larger  than  a  fox  should  be  cleaned,  in  the  manner 
already  described,  of  everything,  even  to  the  ligaments,  and  the  bones 
wired  together.  Small  skeletons  of  the  size  of  a  rat  can  be  made 
ready  for  maceration  and  then  put  into  a  perforated  box  and  placed 
in  an  ant-hill.  These  insects  will  quickly  remove  all  the  flesh,  and  the 
skeleton  should  be  taken  away  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  attack  the 
ligaments.  Following  these  general  directions,  a  little  experience  and 
$,  great  deal  of  patience  and  perseverance  will  ensure  success. 


MAN— the  lord  of  the  Animal  Kingdom — is  constructed  after 
the  same  type  as  the  cat  which  purrs  at  his  feet,  the  ox  which  he 
eats,  the  horse  which  bears  his  burden,  the  bird  which  sings  in 
his  gilded  cage,  the  snake  which  crawls  hissing  across  his  pathway, 
the  toad  which  hides  in  his  garden,  and  the  fish  which  swims 
in  his  aquarium.  All  are  modifications  of  one  creative  thought, 
showing  how  the  Almighty  Worker  delights  in  repeating  the  same 
chord,  with  infinite  variations. 


VERTEBRATES.  < 


1.  Mammals. 

2.  Birds. 

3.  Reptiles. 

4.  Amphibians 

5.  Fishes. 


I.  SUBKINGDOM    VEKTEBRATA: 


General 

tebrates  are  usually  distinguished  by  a 
chain  of  small  bones  (vertebrae)  to  which 
the  other  parts  of  the  skeleton  are  at 
tached.*  Certain  modifications  in  the 
structure  of  these  animals  separate  them 
into  Classes,  according  to  the  following 
table: 


SUBKINGDOM. 


...  ,  SUCKLE  THEIR  YOUNG  ;  LUNGS  ;  -, 

Viviparous          RESPIRATION  SIMPLE;  BLOOD 


(producing    \      WARM  ;  CIRCULATION  DOUBLE 

1Vlng.  AND  COMPLETE  ;  HEART  FOUR- 

t        CHAMBERED. 


C  Respiration  double  ;  > 

blood  warm  ; 

circulation  double 

• 

and  complete  ;       i 

^^ 

heart 

1— 

four-chambered.    J 

^ 

RESPIRATION 

cc 

AERIAL  ; 

Respiration  simple  ;  \ 

CO 

WITH    LUNGS. 

blood  cold  ; 

circulation 

LJ_I 

incomplete  ; 

1  — 

heart  mostly  three- 

cc 

H 

chambered  ; 

LU 

1 

skull  one  occipital 

^^ 

to 

condyle 

1 

(see  Glossary). 

&    . 

RESPIRATION 

'  Respiration  simple  -> 

arous 

AQUATIC  WHEN 
YOUNG,  AERIAL 
WHEN  MATURE, 

when  mature  ; 
blood  cold  ; 
circulation  incom- 

Q. 

OR  WITH  BOTH 

plete  ; 
heart  three- 

6 

LUNGS  AND  GILLS 
AQUATIC   AND 

chambered  ; 
skull  two  occipital 

condyles. 

(birds}. 


Vertebral  Column. 


RESPIRATION 
AQUATIC,  WITH 

GILLS. 


f  Blood  cold ;  ] 
J.  heart  mostly  i- 
[  two-chambered.  J 


Amphibia, 


Pisces 
(fishes). 


*  For  a  description  of  the  vertebral  column,  and  the  advantages  of  its  peculiar 
form,  see  "Fourteen  Weeks  in  Physk.logy,"  page  27,  et  seq. 


16 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


I.      MAMMALIA. 


Characteristics.— To  the  class  of  Mammals 
belong  man  and  those  animals  which  resemble  him  in  the 
most  important  parts  of  their  organization.  The  distinguish- 
ing features  are  that  they  suckle  their  young,  and  that  their 
bodies  have,  in  general,  a  full  or  partial  covering  of  hair. 
Some  being  designed  for  a  life  purely  terrestrial,  others 
mainly  aerial  or  aquatic,  they  exhibit  great  variety  of  struc- 
ture, as  will  appear  in  the  following  tabulation  for  Orders: 


MAMMALIA.^ 


ORDERS 

f    WITH    c  ERECT,  TWO-HANDED Bimana 

HANDS.  <  NON-ERECT,  FOUR-HANDED Quadrumana. 

TEETH  COMPLETE Carnivora. . . . 

FOUR  FEET  HOOFED Ungulata.... 

FEET  PARTLY  HOOFED Hyracoidea  . . 

PROBOSCIS Proboscidea. . 

WHALE-LIKE,  HERBIVOROUS Sirenia 

FISH-LIKE,  CARNIVOROUS    Cetacea 

HAND-WINGED Cheiroptera  . 

CONICAL  TEETH Insectivora  . . 

GNAWING  TEETH Rodentia 

TOOTHLESS Edentata 

POUCHED . Marsupialia. . . 

BIRD-LIKE ...  ...  Mouotremata. . 


EXAMPLES. 

Ma,,. 

Monkey. 

Cat,  etc. 

Horse,  etc. 

Daman. 

Elephant. 

M'tnatte,  etc. 

Whale i  etc. 

But 

Mole,  etc. 

Rat,  etc. 

Stnth,  etc. 

Opossum,  etc. 

...Duckbill. 


ORDER     BIMANA. 

This  order  comprises  only  one  family,  and  embraces  a 
single  genus  and  species ;  thus, 


BIMANA.        HOMINIM!.*        HOMO          sapiens,        Man. 

General  Characteristics. — Marked  physical  peculiar- 
ities distinguish  man  from  the  other  mammals.  Thus,  the 
position  of  the  spinal  opening  in  the  middle  third  of  the  base 
of  the  skull,  thereby  balancing  the  head  and  admitting  an 
upright  posture  ;  the  double  curve  of  the  vertebral  column  ; 
the  length  of  the  thumb,  extending  to  the  middle  of  the 
index  finger,  and  the  ability  of  opposing  the  thumb  to  the 


By  general  consent  of  zoologists,  the  names  of  all  Families  terminate  in  Ida'. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    OKDEK  BIMANA. 


17 


fingers  ;  the  power  of  placing  the  foot  at  right  angles  with 
the  leg,  the  sole  resting  flat  on  the  ground;  the  size  and 
position  of  the  great  toe;  the  length  of  the  arms,  reaching 
Fig  s  half-way  from  the  hip  to 

the  knees ;  the  relatively 
great  development  of 
brain;  the  freedom  of 
the  anterior  extremities 
from  use  in  locomotion, 
and  the  consequent  erect 
and  biped  position.  In 
addition,  man  is  the  only 
mammal  that  truly  walks; 
tli at  is  endowed  with  the 
power  of  speech;  and 
that  is  cosmopolitan, 
readily  adapting  himself 
to  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold,  and  making  his 
home  in  all  parts  of  the 
globe.  (See  Fig.  5.) 

There  are  intellectual 
and  moral  features,  more- 
over, which  place  man 
high  above  all  other  ani- 
mals. The  scope  of  his  mind  and  the  possibilities  of  an 
immortal  soul,  mark  the  rank  of  a  being  who  is  alone 
declared  to  have  been  created  "in  the  image  of  God." 

Common  Origin  of  Man. — While  in  the  human  race 
there  is  but  a  single  species,  zoologists  are  accustomed  to 
speak  of  several  very  distinctly-marked  varieties.  In  respect 
to  the  dividing  lines  of  the  commonly-enumerated  five  races? 
authors  disagree.  So  that,  although  there  are  some  differ- 
ences of  structure  and  great  diversity  in  the  texture  of  the 
skin  and  the  character  of  the  hair  of  mankind  in  various 
localities,  yet  in  the  same  nation  there  are  similar  varieties ; 
and  as  marked  diversities  have  repeatedly  been  observed  in  a 


Apollo  Belvedere. 


18 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


single  species  of  the  domestic  animals.  We  therefore  agree 
with  Dr.  Prichard  "  that  no  other  differences  occur  than 
may  fairly  be  attributed  to  the  differences  of  external  cir- 
cumstances ;  and  hence  it  may  safoly  be  concluded  that  the 
different  races  are  all  members  of  the  same  family,  and  the 
offspring  of  one  common  stock." 

Dental  Formula.  —  As  the  teeth  present  important  char- 
acteristics for  classifying  the  mammals,  zoologists  designate 
the  number  by  a  formula  which,  as  applied  to  man,  reads 
.2  —  2  1  —  1  2-2  3  —  3 


thus: 


—     pm- 


m 


Q0  . 

=  3*.      This 


^-2,       3 

signifies  that  there  are  eight  incisors,  two  on  each  side  of 
each  jaw  ;  four  canine  teeth  back  of  the  incisors  ;  eight  pre- 
molars  (bicuspids)  back  of  the  canine;  and  twelve  molars 
back  of  the  premolars. 


Fig.k. 


ORDER     QUADRUMANA. 

General    Characteristics. — The    peculiar    feature    of 
Monkeys  is  the  power  of  opposing  the  great  toe  to  the  other 

toes,  making  the  hind  feet  be- 
come hands  s.-nd  the  animal 
quadrumanous  or  four-handed. 
They  are  further  distinguished 
from  man  by  the  spinal  open- 
ing in  the  cranium  being  in 
the  posterior  third  of  the  base ; 
by  the  single  curve  of  the  ver- 
tebral column;  the  shortness 
of  the  thumb,  which  does  not 
reach  the  base  of  the  index 
finger;  the  long  and  narrow 
pelvis ;  the  impossibility  of 
placing  the  foot  at  right  angles  with  the  leg,  the  sole  resting 
on  the  ground  ;  the  relative  length  of  the  arms,  which  reach 
at  least  to  the  knee,  and  in  some  species  to  the  ankle ;  the 
greater  prominence  of  the  canine  teeth,  etc. 


a,  Monkey's  hand  and  foot. 

b,  Human  hand  and  foot. 


CLASS    MAMMALS  I     ORDEK    QUADEtJMANA. 
Fig.  5. 


19 


Skeletons  of  Orang,  Chimpanzee,  and  Man. 

The  order  is  divided  into  families  as  follows : 


FAMILIES.          EXAMPLES. 


QUADRUMANA.  •< 


HEAD  OBLONG  ;   DENTIL  FORMULA  AS  IN 

MAN  ;      NOSTRILS    CATARHINE     (oblique) 

NAILS  FLAT  ON  ALL  THE  FINGERS. 
HEAD  ROUND ; 

2-2     1     1;   3-3     3-3 
2-2*   1-1     3-3'   3-3 
NOSTRILS  PLATYRHINE  (wide  apart) ;  NAILS 
SOMEWHAT  COMPRESSED. 

HEAD  POINTED;  DENTITION  AS  IN  CEBID^B  ;  • 

NOSTRILS  STREPSORHINK  (twisted) ;    NAILS 
FLAT  EXCEPT    A   LONG    CURVKD  CLAW   ON 
THE  FIRST  FINGER,  SOMETIMES  THE  FIRST 
*-        TWO  FINGERS  OF  THE  HIND  FEET. 


;  !•     Simiidae.    •! 

) 


Cebida?. 


Lemuridae. 


Monkeys 

of  the 
Old  World. 

Monkeys 

of  the 
New  World. 


Monkeys 

of 
Madagascar. 


Simiidae. — The  Catarhine  Monkeys,  with  the  exception 
of  a  single  species  found  upon  the  Eock  of  Gibraltar,  belong 
to  Asia  and  Africa.  This  family  comprises  animals  which 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


greatly  vary  in  their  organization  and  lead  down  by  degrees 
from  man  to  the  common  animals,  as  is  shown  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 


FAMILY,                                                                                                              GENUS.               SPECIES. 

EXAMPLES. 

Troglodytes       niger, 

Chimpanzee. 

£    r 

WITHOUT  POSTERIOR 
CALLOSITIES.* 

(Black  cave-dweller.) 
Troglodytes       gorilla, 

Gorilla. 

N^ 

S; 

Simia                 satyrns, 

Orang-outang. 

z 

Without  1  s 

(Snub-nosed  satyr.) 

O 

•falle             1     « 

2 

tans            s 

(Hylobates         agilis. 

Agile  Gibbon. 

LU 

,    £ 

(Agile  wood-walker.) 

Hi 

Hylobates          syndactylus, 

Siamang. 

X 

tr 

(^            (Yoke-fingered.) 

•< 

MUZZLE  ROUNDED,      f  Semnopiihecus  entellus, 

Sacred  Monkey. 

s 

WITHOUT                           (Revered  ape.) 

O 

is 

CHEEK-poucaES.t     [  Semnopithecus  nasica, 

Proboscis  Monkey. 

i^r 

With     1  S  . 

Colobus             polycomus, 

Colobe. 

Q 

taLls 

MUZZLE  MORE  OB 

(Mutilated.) 

— 

J  S 

LESS   PROJECTING, 

Cercopithecus  mona, 

Guenon, 

* 

M 

WITH 

(Tailed  ape.) 

to 

CHEEK-POUCHES. 

Cynocephalus    mormon, 

Mandrill. 

(Dog-headed.) 

Fig.  G. 


Troglodytes  niger,  Chimpanzee. 


Anthropoid 
Apes. — The  Chim- 
panzee bears  the 
greatest  resemblance 
to  man,  though  infe- 
rior in  stature  and 
strength.  Like  the 
Gorilla,  it  has  its 
home  in  the  dense 
forests  of  Western 
Africa.  Both  have 
been  represented  as 
dwelling  in  huts 
built  in  trees  and 
snatching  up  the  un- 
wary traveler  who 


*  The  posterior  callosities  are  hardened  protuberances,  to  obviate  friction  when 
the  animal  takes  a  sitting  posture. 

t  The  cheek*  of  some  monkeys  are  capable  of  being  greatly  expanded,  so  as  lo 
form  a  sort  of  temporary  larder  in  which  the  monkey  lays  by  its  food  or  carries  it  off. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  QUADRUMANA. 

Fig.  7. 


Troglodytes  Gorilla,  Gorilla 


22  SUBKINGDOM    '^KTEBEATA. 

passes  beneath;  whereas  they  generally  remain  upon  the 
ground,  eat  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  merely  bend  down 
branches  for  a  seat  and,  perhaps,  for  concealment. 

The  Orang  differs  more  widely  from  man,  and  is  adapted 
to  an  arboreal  life.  It  inhabits  Southern  Asia.  In  the  wild 
state  it  is  frugivorous  (fruit-feeding),  not  even  eating  eggs, 
though  the  teeth  are  adapted  to  either  vegetable  or  animal 
food.  Matured  orangs  of  the  same  species  and  sex  vary  io 
height  from  five  to  over  seven  feet. 

The  Gibbon  is  distinguished  by  the  length  of  its  arms  and 
the  slenderness  of  its  form.  With  a  height  of  three  feet,  the 
reach  of  the  extended  arrnl?  is  six  feet,  enabling  it  to  swing 
through  the  air  among  branches  twenty  feet  apart.* 

Fig.  8. 


Hylobates  agWs,  Gibbon. 


Hylobdtes  syndactylus,  SiSmang. 


The  Siamang  derives  its  specific  name  from  the  adhesion 
of  the  first  and  second  fingers  as  far  as  the  joint  which  bears 
the  nail.  The  posterior  callosities  of  this  genus  link  it  to  the 


*  When  the  Ateles  wish  to  cross  a  river,  the  strongest  ascend  a  high  tree  over- 
looking the  stream.  The  leader  hooking  his  tail  firmly  to  a  limb  drops  downwardi 
while  the  next  attaches  himself  to  his  predecessor,  and  so  on,  forming  at  last  a  long 
chain  of  monkeys.  This  swings  to  and  fro  until  the  end  monkey  grasps  a  limb  upon 
the  opposite  bank.  Along  this  living  suspension  bridge  the  troop  pass  over,  a  mis- 
chievous monkey  occasionally  playing  off  a  practical  joke  on  some  member  as  he 
hurries  forward.  To  get  the  bridge  across,  the  first  monkey  lets  go  and  the  chain 
swings  over,  perhaps  ducking  one  or  two,  when  all  unfasten  and  catching  at  the 
branches,  descend  to  the  ground.  (See  page  25,  Pig.  16.) 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER   QUADRUMANA.  23 

monkeys*  proper,  which  have  tails  and  cheek  pouches,  or 
some  equivalent  modification  of  the  digestive  organs. 


Fig.  10 


SemnopithVcus  entettus^  Sacred  Monl 


ISemnopitliecvs  naslca 
Proboscis  Monkey. 


*  The  term  Monkey  is  properly  applied  to  those  Simiidae  having  tails,  which  serve 
like  a  balancing-pole  to  the  rope-dancer  or  as  a  rudder  to  guide  the  animal  in  its  leaps 
through  the  air. 


SUBKIHGDOM    VERTEBKATA. 


Fig.  13. 


Monkeys  Proper.— The  Semnopithecus  lacks  the  cheek- 
pouches,  but  is  compensated  by  a  stomach  with  distinct 
sacs.  The  Sacred  Monkey  receives  divine  honors  from  the 
natives  of  India,  who  believe  it  a  metamorphosed  prince,  and 
punish  its  slaughter  by  death,  although  a  trifling  fine  com- 
pounds for  the  murder  of  a  man.*  It  is  permitted  to  ravage 
their  gardens  at  will. 

The  Proboscis  Monkey  of  Borneo  has  a  flabby  nose,  six 
inches  long  and  capable  of  enormous  inflation. 

The  Colobe  (mutilated) 
is  named  from  its  lacking 
a  thumb  on  the  anterior 
extremity.  The  long 
white  hair  of  its  head 
falls  over  the  back  like  a 
cloak. 

TheGuenon  approaches 
the  ape  in  the  shortness 
of  its  muzzle.  With 
bushy  whiskers  and  varied 
colors,  it  is  the  fop  of  the 
monkeys.  Its  cheek- 
pouches  will  contain  two 
days  food.  Driven  by 
famine,  it  descends  into 
the  fields  and  commits 
great  havoc.  Docile  in 
nature,  it  is  easily  tamed, 
but  is  an  arrant  thief, 
and  while  gravely  receiv- 
ing caresses  will  pick  the 
pocket  of  its  confiding 
admirer.f 


Colobus  rolycdmus,  Bear  Monkey. 
Fig.  1U. 


Cercopithlcus  mona,  Guenon. 


*  It  may  have  become  interwoven  so  remarkably  with  the  superstition  of  the 
Hindoos  on  account  of  being  an  expert  serpent-killer. 

t  The  last  two  genera,  with  others,  include  a  great  number  of  species  which 
inhabit  Africa— the  headquarters  of  the  monkey  tribe.  It  is  believed  that  each  is 
restricted  to  a  small  territory  and  jealously  guards  any  intrusion. 


CLASS    MAMMALS:     ORDER    QUADRUMANA. 


Fig.  15. 


The  Baboon,  with  its  dog-like  muzzle,  is  the  ugliest  and 
most  ferocious  of  the  mon- 
keys. It  dwells  among  craggy 
rocks,  which  it  climbs  with 
great  agility.  Its  food  con- 
sists of  bulbous  roots,  eggs, 
insects,*  etc.  In  this  tribe 
the  Mandrill  is  conspicuous 
for  its  variety  of  color  — 
its  nose  being  red,  with  a 
bright  scarlet  tip;  its  cheeks, 
a  brilliant  blue  ;  its  beard, 
citron-yellow;  its  hind-parts 
violet ;  and  its  body  a  grayish 
brown,  tinged  above  with 
olive. 

Cebidae.  — The    Platy- 

rhine  monkeys  are  found  in      cynocephdiu*  mormon.  Mandrill.  4, 
great      numbers      climbing 

among  the  trees  in  the  forests  of  South  America.  Having 
no  callosities,  cheek  pouches,  or  opposable  thumbs,  they  are 
classified  according  to  the  differences  in  the  tails : 


CEBID/t,    j 

or  Plaiyrhine      } 

Monkeys. 


TAILS   PREHENSILE, 


GENUS. 

Ateles 


SPECIES. 

pentadactylus, 


CEBID/t,     J  (able  to  grasp).  \   Mycetes         ursinus, 

TAILS  NON-PREHENSILE.  $  Jrachyurus  cacajao, 
(   Hapale          iacchus. 


EXAMPLES. 

Spider  Monkey. 
Bear  Hmoler 
Saki. 
Marmoset. 


Fig.  16. 


Atiles  pentadactf/lus,  Spider  Monkey.    ^ 


The  Ateles,  or  four- 
fingered  monkey,  has 
no  thumb  on  the  an- 
terior extremity.  On 
account  of  the  length, 
flexibility,  and  slender- 
ness  of  its  limbs,  it  is 
termed  the  Spider  Mon- 
key. The  tail  is  prehen- 


*  It  devours  scorpions  with  great  dexterity,  whipping  off  their  stings  so  quickly 
as  to  give  them  no  chance  to.  strike  it. 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


Fig.  17. 


MycStes  vrifiniis.  Bear  Howler. 
Fig.  18. 


sile,  and  the  end  being 
bare  and  sensitive,  can 
be  used  as  a  fifth  hand 
to  pick  up  small  ob- 
jects or  to  insert  into 
the  hollows  of  trees  to 
hook  out  eggs.  The 
Bear  Howler  has  the 
power  of  dilating  the 
larynx  so  as  to  render 
the  voice  louder  than 
the  roar  of  a  lion,  hav- 
ing been  heard  two 
miles  off.  ThetfaHis 
a  striking  example  of 
the  non-prehensiles, 
as  its  tail  is  short  and 
so  covered  with  hair 
as  to  look  in  some 
species  like  a  mere 
knob. 

Fig.  19. 


Hapdle  jacc/ius,  Marmfeet.     }. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDEK  QUADEUMAKA. 


The  Marmoset,*  by  its  sharp,  crooked  claws,  and  the  short 
thumb  on  its  hind  feet,  stands  at  the  extreme  of  the  monkey 
tribe  in  America.  Its  food  is  not  grasped  by  the  fingers,  but 
held  between  the  forepaws.  Several  species  have  tufts  of 
hair  projecting  from  the  sides 
of  the  head. 

Lemuridse.  —  The 
Lemurs  f  have  opposable 
thumbs  like  the  Simiidse, 
and  their  dentition  is  the 
same  as  the  Cebidse ;  while, 
unlike  both,  they  have  a 
long,  curved  claw  on  the 
first,  sometimes  on  the  first 
two  fingers  of  the  hind  feet. 
The  true  Lemurs  are  found 
only  in  the  forests  of  Mada- 
gascar. The  presence  or  ab- 
sence of  tails  furnishes  a 

basis  Of  tabulation.  Hand  and  foot  of  Lemur. 

FAMILY.  GENUS.  SPECIES.  EXAMPLES. 

I  FMIIRin^      (  T  .  TT  q  5  TAIL  PREHENSILE.  C  Lemur  macaco,        Ruffled  Lemur. 

r\iutc.,    ^    i       Jix  £  TAIL  NON-PREHENSILE.     (Cheiromys     madagascariensis.  Aye  Aye. 

TAILLESS,  OR  RUDIMENTARY.  \  ?  er?dicticus  P°tt0;.          ^*f  >f r 

CLoris  gracilis,        Graceful  Loru. 

The  Ruffled  Lemur  is 
the  largest  and  hand- 
somest of  this  family. 
Wrapped  up  in  its  long, 
bushy  tail,  it  passes  the 
day  in  sleep,  and  only 
comes  forth  at  night  to 

Buffled  Lemur.  S6arch      for     f°°d-         TllC 

*  This  little  creature  is  only  six  or  eight  inches  in  length,  and  a  century  ago  was 
held  in  great  estimation  as  a  pet  by  ladies  of  quality.  So  great  is  its  fondness  for 
insects,  that  it  has  been  known  to  tear  out  the  pictures  from  an  Entomology  and 
greedily  swallow  the  printed  scraps  ! — ( Wood.) 

t  Lemur  means  spectre,  and  is  descriptive  of  the  noctnrn;il  habits  and  stealthy 
step  of  the  animal.  In  fact,  it  is  known  among  sailors  as  the  "  Madagascar  Cat.11 


SUBKINGDOH     VERTEBRATA. 


Aye  Aye  has  some  resemblance  to  a  squirrel,  but  the  form  of 
its  head  and  limbs  allies  it   to  the  Lemur.*     The  middle 


Cheiromys  madagascariensis,  Aye  Aye. 


Hand  of  Bush- dog. 


finger  of  its  fore  leg,  long,  slender  and  hairless,  is  adapted 
to  extract  worms  from  their  holes  in  the  ground  or  in  trees. 

The  Bush- dog  is 
marked  by  the  absence 
of  the  first  finger  of 
the  hand.  The  Grace- 
ful Loris  inhabits 
Ceylon,  Java,  etc. 
Prowling  through  the 
darkness,  it  is  almost 
invisible,  save  for  its 
round,  shiny  eyes. 

Loris  gra&lis,  Graceful  Loris.  Espying       a      sleeping 

bird  among  the  branches,  it  creeps  toward  it  with  noiseless, 
imperceptible  movements,  until  it  can  place  its  fingers  over 
its  prey,  when  it  seizes  it  with  a  spring  sudden  as  a  flash. 

ORDER     CARNIVORA. 

General  Characteristics. — This  order  includes  the  flesh- 
eating  animals.     Strong,  agile,  and  with  senses  highly  devel- 

*  It  is  an  illustration  of  what  is  known  as  a  comprehensive  type,  since  it  possesses 
peculiarities  which  link  it  to  different  orders— the  Quadrumana  and  the  Rodents. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDEK,  CAKNIVORA. 


oped,  they  are  organ- 
ized for  slaughter. 
Among  their  ana- 
tomical peculiarities 
are :  (1),  their  denti- 
tion, marked  by  long, 
sharp  canine  teeth, 
and  a  molar  on  each 
side,  above  and  below, 
larger  and  sharper 
than  the  others, 
known  as  the  "car- 
nivorous tooth,"  and 
used  for  crushing 
bones;  and  (2),  their 
feet,  which  are  pro- 
vided with  toes  and 
often  armed  with 
claws.  The  differ- 
ence in  these  physi- 
cal features  affords 
the  basis  of  a  classifi- 
cation. 


rl,  ilL 

2-2(   2-2  . 

1- 

2-2'   1-1  ' 

,  -— 

3-3;   3-3  . 

1  — 

4-4'   2-2  ' 

,  In 

3-3     2-2  . 

1  — 

'   3-3*   1-1  ' 

1- 

3-3     3-3  . 

^ 

1- 

4-4'    3-3 

QC 

8,  l— 

2-2,   2-2  . 

o 

i  i- 

3-3'   2-2  ' 

•^^ 

6     1- 

4-4;   2-2  . 

—    ! 

1     1- 

'  4-4'   3-3 

cc. 

6,  1- 
6     1- 

_,   4-4;   2-2. 
4-4     2-2 

^ 

6,   1- 

,  4-4,   2-2  . 

«'   1- 

4-4     2     2 

8     1  — 

l,              5"~5  ; 

T  1- 

l'              6-5' 

8,  or  *, 

or  4     nidi-     6~6 

4        4 

g  mentary  g  _  g 

2?   1  — 

1  ,  indefinite  ; 

I  o'  o- 

1 

Skull  of  a  Carnivorous  Animal. 
Fig.  26. 


Skeleton  of  a 
claws  retractile, 

Lion. 

FAMILY. 

Felidae, 

EXAMPLES 

Lion  ,  etc. 

claws  semi  retractile, 

Viverridae, 

Civet. 

claws  non-retractile, 

Hyenidae, 

Hyena. 

claws  non-retractile, 

Canidae, 

Dog,  etc. 

claws  non-retractile, 

Mustelidae, 

Weasel,  etc 

claws  non  -retractile, 

Ursidse, 

Bear. 

claws  non  -retractile, 

Procyonidse, 

Raccoon. 

claws  non  -retractile, 

Bassaridae, 

Civet  Cat 

claws  on  posterior  feet  only, 

Otariidap, 

Ea:  ed  Sm< 

claws  on  all  the  feet, 

Phocidae, 

Seal 

claws  on  posterior  feet  only, 

Rosmaridae, 

Walrus. 

30 


SUBKIKGDOM    VERTEBKATA. 


Felidae.— The  Cats  form  the  typical  family  of  this  order. 
They  are  all  digitlgrade  (toe-walkers).  Lest  their  claws 
should  be  blunted  by  coming  in  contact  with  the  ground  or 
impede  their  progress  by  getting  entangled  in  the  grass,  they 
are  retractile,  i.  e.,  the  upper  tendons  of  the  foot  hold  them 
back  without  any  exertion  of  the  will.  Resting  upon  its 
soft,  padded  feet,  and  with  its  claws  sheathed,  the  animal 
steals  noiselessly  toward  its  prey.  As  the  fatal  spring  is  made, 
the  lower  muscles  suddenly  contract,  and,  drawing  the 
claws  forward,  bury  their  sharp  points  in  the  victim's 


27. 


Fiy.  S 


1.  Claw  Sheathed. 

2.  Claw  Extended. 


Tongue  of  a  Carnivorous  Animal 
Highly  Magnified. 


flesh.  The  tongue  is  covered  with  innumerable  little  hooks 
pointing  backward.  These  are  for  rasping  the  bones  which 
it  gnaws  for  food,  and  beautifully  illustrate  the  economy  of 
Nature,  which  allows  no  waste.  The  whiskers  on  the  upper 
lip  are  of  great  service  to  the  animal  while  skulking  about 
in  the  darkness,  seeking  its  food.  They  equal  the  body  in 
width,  and  by  indicating  the  breadth  of  any  opening,  warn 
it  from  attempting  too  close  a  bush,  and  thus  causing  a 
rn.stle  which  might  alarm  its  prey. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  CAENIVOEA. 

Fig.  SO. 


31 


Tongtte  of  a  Carnivorous  Animal. 


* 

GBNUS.      SPECIES. 

(  Felis    leo,* 

EXAMPLE. 

Lio,,. 

Terrestrial. 

•j      "      tigris, 

Tiger. 

concolor, 

Puma. 

Terrestrial  and 

1      "      leopardus, 
arboreal.  <     "     on$a, 

Leopard. 
Jaguar. 

(       "      domestica, 

Domestic  Cot. 

Arboreal. 

j  Lynx  canadensis, 
1       "       rufus, 

Common  Lynx, 
Wild  Cat. 

The  family  is  classified  into  genera  according  to 
their  mode  of  life : 


FELIDxE. 


The  Lion  is  known  as  the  "  King  of  Beasts,"  more  from 
his  majestic  appearance  than  any  nobleness  of  disposition.! 
The  tail  is  tufted,  while  the  neck  of  the  male  is  ornamented 
with  a  flowing  mane  that  in  some  varieties  reaches  nearly  to 
the  ground. J  His  tawny,  uniform  color,  closely  correspond- 

*  Zoologists  have  described  different,  species  of  the  lion,  but  they  are  now  con- 
sidered only  geographical  varieties  distributed  over  Africa  and  southern  Asia. 

t  Livingstone  and  GeVard  pronounce  him  cruel  and  cowardly.  He  secures  his 
prey  by  lying  in  ambush  till  it  comes  within  reach  of  his  terrible  bound,  and  if  the 
first  spring  faib,  like  the  tiger,  he  sneaks  back  to  his  covert  ashamed  and  disap- 
pointed. In  fact  his  speed  is  too  slow  to  permit  his  overtaking  his  game. 

$  It  is  asserted  by  some  travelers  that  the  roar  of  the  lion  is  terrific  beyond 
description,  while  others  declare  it  to  resemble  the  discordant  cries  of  the  ostrich. 
Probably  the  degree  of  fear  aroused  colors  the  narration.  Since  the  lion's  larynx  is 
relatively  larger  than  that  of  any  other  mammal,  there  may  be  no  exaggeration  in  the 
statement  that  its  roar  sometimes  shakes  the  ground  like  an  earthquake,  and  carries 
dread  to  every  animal  within  hearing. 


32  SUBKLtfGDOM    VERTEBKATA. 

ing  to  that  of  the  desert  tracts  in  which  he  lives,  aids  his 
concealment  in  stealing  upon  his  *prey.  The  pupil  of  his  eye 
is  round,  giving  as  extensive  horizontal  vision  as  vertical; 

Fig.  30. 


Fells  leo,  Lion. 


and  his  strength  is  such  that  he  can  carry  off  a  cow  with 
ease,  even  leaping  broad  dikes  and  keeping  ahead  of  pursuing 
horsemen  for  miles  without  dropping  it.  He  naturally  feeds 


Fig.  81. 


Tuft  of  Lion's  Tail,  showing  hook. 

at  night,  so  that  his  apparent  magnanimity  in  sometimes 
sparing  man  and  heast  during  the  day  is  only  because  he  is 
already  satiated  with  food.  Like  other  animals,  he  has  no 
desire  to  kill  merely  for  the  sake  of  killing. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  CARNIVORA.  33 

Fig.  32. 


Fig.  33. 


Fells   tigris,  Tiger. 

The  Tiger,  being  destitute  of  a  mane  and  tail-tuft,  lacks 
the  noble  bearing  of  the  lion,  but  is  beautifully  decorated 
with  black  stripes  upon  a  ground  of  reddish-yellow  fur,  tend- 
ing to  white  beneath.  Its  ferocity,  especially  that  of  the 
dreaded  "  man-eater,"  is  fearful,  while  its  strength  enables  it 
to  carry  off  a  buffalo  thrown  over  its  shoulder.  Inhabiting 
Southern  Asia,  its  home  is  in  the  long  jungle-grass,  with  the 
coloring  of  which  its  stripes  so  exactly  assimilate  that  it  is 
impossible  for  unpracticed  eyes  to  discern  it  at  even  a  short 
distance.  This  adapta- 
tion of  the  color  of  an 
animal  to  that  of  sur- 
rounding objects  in  its 
native  wilds  is  termed 
mimicry,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  wonderful 
provisions  of  Nature. 

The  Puma*  inhabits 
North  and  South  Amer- 
ica. Its  uniform  dun 
color  gives  a  mimicry  Fe-is  conc^^  Puma. 

*  In  different  parts  of  the  continent  the  puma  im  styled  the  "painter,"  the  "pan- 
ther," the  "  cougar,"  and  even  the  "  catamount,"  though  there  is  no  panther  in 
America,  and  the  true  catamount  is  the  wild  cat  of  Europe. 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


Fells  leopardus,  Leopard. 
Fig.  35. 


for  its  protection  while  crouching  upon  the  branches  of  trees, 

Having  a  black  tail-tuft  and  a  sameness  of  color,  it  has  been 

called   the  "American   Lion/7  though   none  of  its  habits 

Fig.  sk.  resembles    those    of    its 

African  namesake. 

The  Leopard,  :iow  con- 
sidered identical  with  the 
panther,  inhabits  Africa, 
India,  and  the  adjacent 
islands.  Smaller  than  the 
Tiger,  it  is  as  beautiful 
and  its  mimicry  as  strik- 
ing— its  skin  being  mark- 
ed with  circles  of  dark 
spots  instead  of  stripes, 
corresponding  to  the 
leaves  of  the  tree  among 
which  it  conceals  itself. 

The  Jaguar,  inhabiting 
the  warmer  parts  of  Amer- 
ica, is  the  analogue  (see 
Glossary)  of  the  Leopard, 
though    more    powerful, 
being  able  to  carry  off  a 
horse    with    ease.       The 
circles  upon  its  sides  have 
a  black  spot  in  the  cen- 
tre, well  calculated  to 
deceive  the  eye  as  the 
animal  glides  through 
the  dense  foliage  of  the 
tropical  forests  in  pur- 
suit of  monkeys,  swims 
in  the  lagoons  for  tur- 
tles, or  prowls  around 
the  herds  of  cattle  for 


Fells  on.  fa,  Jaguar. 
Fig.  36. 


Fells  domesttca*C&t. 


larger  prey. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  CARNIVORA. 


35 


Domestic  Cat. — No  wild  animal  is  known  that  can  be  the 
original  of  the  do- 
mestic cat,  though 
there  are  several 
which  bear  some 
resemblance  to  it. 
There  is  a  marked 
difference  in  the  tail 
of  the  wild  and  the 
domestic  species. 
Still  greater  varia- 
tions, however,  are 
found  in  dogs  of  the 
same  race.* 

The  Lynx  is  anatomically  distinguished  by  having  two  less 
molars  in  the  upper  jaw.  Only  two  species  are  found  in 
North  America — the  Canada  Lynx  and  the  Wild  Cat.  The 
former  has  its  ears  tipped  with  pencil-like  tufts  of  black  hair, 
while  its  prevailing  color  is  gray  with  a  wash  of  black.  It 

Mg.38. 


a.  Tail  of  Wild  Cat. 

b.  Tail  of  Domestic  Cat. 


Lynx 


*  Probably,  animals  designed  by  the  Creator  for  domestication,  have  inherent 
tendencies  to  variation  in  form  and  color,  according  to  climatic  and  alimentary 
influences,  so  that  individuals  may  be  more  readily  recognized.  See  note  p.  39. 


3G 


SUBKIXGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


m. 


Lynx  rufus,  Wild  Cat, 
Fig.  U). 


lives  upon  birds  and  small  mammals,  pursuing  them  among 

the  branches  of  the  trees 
as  well  as  upon  the  ground. 
Its  gait  is  by  bounds  with 
all  four  feet  at  once,  the 
back  being  arched.  The 
Wild  Cat  may  be  recog- 
nized by  its  lacking  long 
ear-tufts,  and  by  having 
the  inside  of  the  legs 
banded  or  spotted. 

Viverridae.— The  Civet 
is  the  type  of  this  numer- 
ous   and    varied    family. 
The   true  civet  has  semi- 
retractile  claws.     It  is  also 
characterized  by  a  double 
pouch,   secreting  a   fatty 
substance  used  as  a  per- 
fume ;  and  by  the  pupil  of 
the    eyes    being    circular 
during  the  day  instead  of 
vertical,   as   in   the   Cats. 
The  Genet  has  retrac- 
tile  claws.      It   wages 
war  on  rats  and  mice,* 
and  in  many  parts  of 
the  east  is  domesticat- 
ed.    The  Ich  n  e  u  m  o  n  i  s 
semi-plantigrade,    and 
has  the  pupils  elongat- 
ed   transversely.       It 

Kverra  genetta,  Genet    lV  preys  Qn  the   ^gg  and 

young  of  the  crocodile  and  various  reptiles. 


Yvterra  citetta,  Civet 
Fig.  U. 


IL 


*  The  ancient  Egyptian?  gave  it  free  access  to  their  houses  and  paid  it  divine 
honors.    It  is  sometimes  called  "  Pharaoh's  Rat." 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDEB  CARKIVORA.  37 


Vic^rra  ichneumon,  Ichneumon. 

Hyenidae. — The  Hyenas  are  peculiar  to  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  Old  World.  The  enormous  strength  of  their 
jaws  and  the  size  of  their  blunt  molar  teeth,  enable  them  to 
crush  the  largest  bones,  which  they  swallow  without  masti- 
cation. In  adult  animals,  the  vertebrae  of  the  neck  often 
grow  together,  enabling  them  to  endure  a  violent  strain. 
The  toes  are  four,  with  blunt,  non-retractile  claws.  The 
bending  of  the  hind  legs  makes  them  seem  shorter  than  the 
fore  legs  and  gives  an  awkward  shuffle  to  the  pace.  The 
hyena  is  the  true  scavenger  among  the  mammals,  removing 
offal  which  would  endanger  the  health  of  man.* 

Canidse.— The  Dogs  have  the  muzzle  more  elongated,  and 
hence  the  jaws  weaker  than  the  previous  Families.  The 
teeth  are  blunter,  and  the  toes,  five  in  front  and  four 
behind,  are  armed  with  non-retractile  claws  adapted  to 
burrowing  in  the  ground.  The  dog  never  perspires,  even  in 
the  hottest  weather.  It  drinks  by  lapping,f  and  so  avoids 
the  danger  of  swallowing  large  quantities  of  cold  water  when 
the,  body  is  overheated.  The  shape  of  the  pupil  affords  a 
basis  for  tabulating: 

(  (  C«nfa  fopm.  Wb(f. 

^AMinx:      )  Pupil  round.        ]  Cmnis  f«niii»ris,  Dog. 

C-  .  :  -s.    -  ( Canis  mareu8>          jo**!. 

(  Pupil  vertical.         Vulpes  vnlgufe,          FXC. 

*  Its  work  is  most  useful,  as  it  consumes  even  the  skeletons  of  the  decaying 
carcasses  on  which  it  feeds.  ID  \«erfonnin^r  this  mission,  its  occasional  attacks  upot* 
graveyards  have,  however,  given  it  an  unenviable  reputation. 

t  In  lapping,  Felidse  turn  the  tip  of  the  tongue  backward,  and  Canidas  forward. 


38 


SUBKINGDOM    YERTEBKATA. 


The  Wolf,  of  which  there  is  now  considered  to  be  but  one 
species  in  North  America,  is  the  best  representative  of  the 
Family.  It  generally  hunts  in  packs.  Unless  impelled  by 

ffig.  Mr 


Fig.  U5. 


hunger,*  they  seldom  attack  prey  larger  than  themselves, 
and  they  are  so  wary  of  traps  that  a  traveler,  when  pursued, 
has  frightened  them  away  by  merely  trailing  a  cord.  Their 

bite,  unlike  that  of  any 
other  animal,  is  a  succes- 
sion of  quick,  violent 
snaps. 

The  Docf.—Of  all  the 
conquests  achieved  by  man 
over  animals,  that  of  the 
dog  is  the  most  complete, 
and,  perhaps,  the  most 
useful.  Not  only  is  he  the 

Canisfamiliaris,  Mastiff.  Sole  ™ammal  that   has  fol- 


*  Such  is  then  their  rapacity  that  they  will  make  a  meal  of  a  harness  or  even  of 
old  shoes  that  may  be  within  their  reach. 


CLASS    MAMMALS:     ORDER    CARNIYORA.  39 

lowed  man  to  the  ends  of  the  earth,  but  more  than  any  other 
is  he  capable  of  education  and  disinterested  affection.  His 
habit  of  repeatedly  turning  round  before  lying  down  is 
regarded  as  a  singular  retention  of  his  mode  in  the  wild  state* 
of  making  a  lair  in  the  tall  grass.  The  dog  attains  maturity 
in  two  years,  and  lives  from  fifteen  to  twenty. 

The  Jackal  derives  its  specific  name  from  the  golden  tint 
of  its  skin.  Like  the  wolf, 
it  hunts  in  bands;  but  it 
associates  more  intimately 
with  man,  acting  the  scav- 
enger in  consuming  the 
street  offal  in  the  filthy 
towns  of  the  East.f 

The  Fox  is  mostly  noc- 
turnal, springing  upon  its 
prey  as  it  passes  by?  or 
stealing  upon  it  while 
asleep.  Its  dentition  is  Canis  flw*w* Jackah  ^ 

calculated  for  a  mixed  diet,  so  that  mammals,  birds,  mol- 
luscs, and  even  grapes,  furnish  a  dainty  meal.  Its  character- 
istic is  craftiness. J  Its  maternal  instinct  is  also  highly 
developed,  and  it  will  peril  its  life  to  save  its  young. 

*  The  canine  race,  like  the  human,  inherently  adapted  to  variation  and  develop, 
ment,  through  the  influence  of  climate  and  condition,  presents  innumerable  varieties; 
though  all  are  considered  by  most  naturalists  as  having  a  common  origin  and  to  be 
regarded  of  one  species.  Many  have  supposed  the  wolf  to  be  the  progenitor  of  the 
dog.  But,  while  the  osteological  structure  of  the  two  is  identical,  the  total  want  of 
similarity  in  disposition,  especially  in  affection  for  man,  their  hostility  to  each 
other,  and  their  permanent  physical  differences— as  the  obliquity  of  the  wolfs  eye, 
and  its  drooping  tail— oppose  this  theoiy.  Besides,  it  is  as  reasonable  to  presume 
;hat  the  wolf  descended  from  the  dog,  as  the  dog  from  the  wolf.  But  no  wild  dogs — 
as,  for  instance,  those  of  the  Antilles,  known  to  have  sprung  from  domestic  varieties 
—have  ever  approximated  the  characteristics  of  wolves.  Hence,  with  Prichard,  \ve 
conclude,  u  As  with  the  race  of  man,  so  with  the  race  of  dogs,  the  varieties  have 
become  permanent  from  one  original  pair."  It  is,  however,  a  mooted  question. 

t  In  uninhabited ,  regions,  it  often  feeds  upon  the  remnants  of  carcasses  left  by 
lions,  and  hence  the  absurd  idea  that  it  is  the  companion  of  that  beast,  and  runs  down 
his  prey  for  him. 

t  A  hunted  fox  will  run  a  long  way  in  a  straight  line,  then  doubling  on  its  track, 
suddenly  spring  off  to  a  great  distance  one  side  and  quietly  steal  away,  while  the 
hounds  are  eagerly  following  up  Ihe  scent ;  it  will  leap  from  tree  to  tree,  and  hide  in 
some  convenient  hollow  :  it  will  perfume  itself  with  any  odorous  eubstance  it  may 


40  SUBKITSTGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 

Different  species  abound  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  * 


Fig.  hi. 


Vulpes  mlgflris.  Fox 


Mustelidae.— The  Weasels  are  greatly  diversified  in  size, 
habits,  color,  etc.  All  have  fine  fur,  short  legs,  and  slim, 
flexible  bodies,  which  enable  them  by  gliding  movements  to 
pursue  their  prey  through  small  openings.  Nearly  all  have 
glands  secreting  a  disagreeable  odor.  Differences  in  denti- 
tion and  manner  of  walking  afford  a  means  of  tabulation : 


Terrestrial,  i 


Aquatic. 


DIGITIGEADE. 


DIGITIGRADE. 


j  Mustela  pentmntii, 

1          "  nmericaim, 

Putorius  ermineus, 
lutreolus, 

Mephitis  mephitica, 

.Scion  americana, 

TEETH  =r.S.      Gulo,  luscus, 

TEETH  =3&       Lutra  canadensis. 


TEETII 
TEETU 

TEETH 


=  31. -I  Mephi 
f   Taxid 


JY.v7.rr. 

Sable. 

Weasel 

Mink. 

Skintl: 
Uudyer. 
Wolverine. 
Otter. 


The  Fisher  and  the  Sable  are  the  representatives  of  the 
Genus  Mustela  in  North  America.  The  former  is  the  largest 

meet.  in  order  to  deceive  the  dogs ;  it  will  rnn  at  full  jump  to  the  crest  of  n  hill,  then 
quickly  lie  down,  while  the  headlong  spaed  of  its  pursuers  carries  them  pell-mell  to 
the  bottom;  and  even  if  caught  it  will  feign  death,  permitting  itself  to  be  handled, 
kicked  about,  and  carried  away,  without  showing  any  sign  of  life  until  a  chance  of 
escape  offers,  when  it  will  suddenly  dash  off  to  the  intense  surprise  of  those  whom  it 
has  so  cleverly  duped, 

*  So  varied,  however,  are  their  individual  markings  according  to  age  and  locality^ 
that  naturalists  disagree  as  to  the  number  of  species  in  North  America,  or  whether 
there  is  more  than  one  genus. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  CARNIVORA. 


Fig.  1*8. 


of  the  known  species.  Its  long  head  and  bushy  tail,  resem- 
bling those  of  the  Fox, 
mark  the  transition 
from  the  Canida3  to  the 
Mustelidse.  The  Sable 
is  arboreal,  climbing 
with  ease  to  the  highest 
branches  in  pursuit  of 
birds  and  eggs.  Its  fur 
will  lie  smoothly  in  any 
direction. 
The  Weasel,  at  the 

.,       ,       .  MusWapennemfii,  Fisher,    ft. 

north,  during  summer, 

is  reddish-brown  above  and  white  beneath.    It  changes  from 

brown  to  white  in  October  ami  November,  and  back  again  in 

Fig.  l&. 


Musttla  americana,  Marten  or  Sable. 


March,  except  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  which  is  always 
black.    At  the  south,  the  same  species  does  not  vary  its  fur. 


STJBKINQDOM    VERTEBRATA. 

Fig.  50. 


Putorius  erminSw,  Weasel  in  winter.    |. 

These  alterations  are  effected,  not  by  shedding  the  coat,  but 
by  changes  in  the  color  of  the  hair.  Weasels  destroy  mice, 
and  hence  are  beneficial  to  farmers.* 

Fig.  51. 


Putorius  erminSus,  Weasel  in  summer.    J. 


*  Their  carnivorous  propensities  are,  however,  not  unfrequently  displayed  in  the 
hen-roost.    An  ermine  has  been  known  to  kill  forty  full-^rowu  fowls  in  a 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  CARNIVORA. 


43 


Fig.  52. 


The  Mink  is  brown,  with  a  white  spot  under  the  chin.  It 
is  semi-digitigrade  and  semi-palmate  (webbed),  being  thus 
fitted  for  hunting  in  the 
streams  for  fish,  frogs,  etc. 
The  Skunk  is  striped 
with  black  and  white ; 
but  individuals  of  the 
same  species  differ  in 
their  markings.  It  emits 
in  self-defence  an  intoler- 
able odor,  that  no  othar  pMm  lutr(blus^  Mink.  iV 
animal  can  endure.  The 

fore  feet  are  adapted  to  digging  holes,  in  which  it  hibernates 
53.  without  becoming  torpid 

— entering  its  retreat  in 
the  fall,  fat,  and  coming 
out  in  the  spring,  lean. 

The  Badger,  inhabit- 
ing the  northern  part  of 
the  continent,  has  long 
silky  hair  and  short  tail. 
Its  stout  claws  are  well 
adapted  for  burrowing. 
Though  so  peaceable  as 
to  resign  its  nest  without  a  struggle  to  those  much 
weaker  than  itself,  it  can  bite  more  fiercely  than  any 
animal  of  its  size.  Its  skin  is  so  loose  and  thick,  that  while 
the  teeth  of  its  assailants  can  make  little  impression  upon  it, 
the  badger  can  turn  itself  round  in  it,  so  as  to  bite  them  in 
their  tenderest  parts.  It  feeds  upon  small  animals,  which  it 

night,  as  it  devours  the  brain  and  sucks  the  blood,  but  never  eats  the  flesh  of  an 
animal.  Its  mode  of  attack  is  to  pounce  upon  its  prey  transversely,  and  piercing  the 
brain  at  a  single  bite,  to  throw  itself  lengthwise  upon  the  body,  to  which  it  clings 
nntil  the  death  of  its  victim.  Its  ability  to  bend  the  head  at  right  angles  with  the 
neck  facilitates  this  mode  of  attack —Ermine  skins  have  long  been  used  in 
England  to  decorate  the  robes  of  judicial  officers,  and  hence  their  association  with 
ideas  of  moral  purity.— The  expression  " catch  a  weasel  asleep"  is  based  upon 
the  ease  with  which  the  animal  may  be  caught  when  sleeping,  on  account  oi  the 
soundness  of  its  slumbers. 


44 


SUBONGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


digs  out  of  their  burrows,  leaving  dangerous  trap-holes  foi 
the  unwary  traveler. 

Fig.51*. 


Fig.  55. 


Tassidga  americctna,  Badger. 

The  Wolverine  inhabits  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and 
America,  Extravagant  stories  are  told  by  trappers  of  its 
strength  and  ferocity,*  whereas  it  is  harmless  to  man,  and 

only  annoying  by  de- 
vouring animals  caught 
in  traps,  and  by  destroy- 
ing the  hunter's  hoards. 
"With  a  sagacity  rarely 
permitting  it  to  be  en- 
snared, it  skillfully  tears 
q|  the  trap  to  pieces,  and 
carries  off  the  bait. 

The  River  Otter  has 
but  one  species  in  North  America,  though  it  ranges  from 
Hudson's  Bay  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Its  webbed  feet  exhibit 

*  Thus  we  are  gravely  informed  that  the  Wolverine  will  drop  from  a  tree  upon 
the  back  of  an  animal  passing  underneath,  and,  clinging  to  its  neck  with  long  tren- 
chant claws,  tear  open  the  blood-vessels  until  the  poor  victim  falls  lifeless. 


Gulo  luscus,  Wolverine  or  "  Glutton." 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  CARNIVORA. 


45 


an  approach  to  the  amphibious  mammals.  The  peculiar 
position  of  its  eye  enables  it,  with  a  slight  motion  of  the 
head,  to  see  the  fish  on  which  it  preys,  whether  swimming 
above,  below,  beside,  behind,  or  before.  %It  burrows  in  the 


Fin  .<>« 


Fig.  57. 

a 


Ultra  canadensls,  Otter.    . 

banks  of  streams,  forming  the  entrance  under  water,  and 
providing  numerous  cells  to  occupy,  according  to  the  height 
of  the  stream.  Its  pastime  of  sliding  in  companies  into  the 
water,  down  a  snow-bank  in  winter  and  a  slippery  clay-bank 
in  summer,  presents  a  singular 
feature  of  animal  life. 

Ursidse. — The  Bear  is  a  typical 
example  of  a  plantigrade  (see  Glos- 
sary).    The  entire  sole  of  the  foot 
applied  to  the  ground;  the  broad, 
flat   crowns   of  the   molars;   large, 
curved,  n  on -retractile  claws;  smooth 
tongue;  mobile  nose;  circular  pu- 
pils,    and  short   tail,   exhibit   such    f  / 
variations  from  the  strictly  carniv-       ' 
orous  animals  as  betoken  different   b  TopviewofBear,shnverjaw. 
habits  of  life.     Bears  arc  carnivorous    c.  side  view  of  jaws  shut.. 


46  SUBKINGDOM  VERTEBEATA. 

Fig.  58. 


Skeleton  of  Bear. 

only  from  necessity,  their  preference  being  for  roots,  nuts, 
honey,  and  even  insects.  The  single  American  genus  is  thus 
tabulated  : 

["Terrestrial   only.  )  SOLES  OF  THE  )  Ursus  horribilis,      G  izzly  Bear. 

URSID/E.  \    Terrestrial  and  arboreal,  f  FEET  NAKED^     "    amer  icanii3'  £lacfc'  £™r' 

(  SOLES  OF  THE  ^ 
v.   Maritime.  •}  FEETCOVERED>     "     maritimus,     WhiteBear. 


IIAIR. 


The  Grizzly  Bear,  so  called  because  of  the  intermixture  in 
its  fur  of  grayish  hairs  with  black  and  brown,  is  the  most 
ferocious  of  the  North  American  carnivora.  Its  sharp, 
powerful  claws,  often  five  inches  long,  move  independently 
of  one  another,  and,  when  the  animal  strikes  with  its  paws, 
cut  like  so  many  chisels.  Its  strength  enables  it  to  carry  off 
a  bison,  and  dig  a  pit  in  which  to  bury  it.* 

Black  Bear.  —  While  the  Grizzly  Bear  is  limited  to  the 
Rocky  Mountain  regions,,  the  Black  Bear,  under  a  variety  of 
names,  is  distributed  over  North  America.  An  expert 


*  Such  is  the  terror  inspired  by  this  formidable  beast,  tint  no  other  animal  will 
dare  to  touch  a  deer  which  it  has  killed  and  left  behind  ;  the  simple  print  of  the  bear's 
foot  frightening  away  even  a  hungry  wolf.  Its  tail  is  very  short  and  entirely 
hidden  beneath  its  fur.  The  Indians  sometimes  amuse  themselves  with  the  perplex- 
ity of  persons  who  are  ignorant  of  this  fact,  by  requesting  them  to  lift  the  carcaes  of 
a  Grizzly  which  they  say  is  easily  done  if  seized  by  the  tail. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  CARNIVORA. 

Fig,  59. 


Ursus  forribl  7«,  G  rizzly  Bear. 


climber,  honey  is  its  favorite  food ;  though  its  powerful  claws 
are  adapted  to  tearing  up  young  shoots  and  succulent  roots. 
Its  mode  of  attack  is  to  rear  upon  its  back  feet,  and  seizing 
its  victim  between  its  fore  legs,  either  to  suffocate  it  with  its 
embrace,  or  disembowel  it  with  its  hind  claws.  In  the  colder 


Mg.  GO. 


Ursus  americanus,  Black  Bear 


48' 


SUBKIKGDOM    VERTEBKATA. 


Ursus  maritimm.  White  Bear. 


latitudes  it  passes  the  winter  usually  in  a  hollow  log,  withfyut 
Fi    61  becoming  insensible. 

The  Polar  Bear*  is 
the  largest  member  of 
this  family.  It  feeds 
on  seals,  fish,  and 
walruses,  which  it 
pursues  in  the  water, 
swimming  and  diving 
with  great  skill.  To 
secure  firm  footing 
on  the  ice,  the  soles 
of  the  feet  are  thickly 
covered  with  long  hairs.  It  passes  January  and  February  in 
a  lethargy,  buried  in  the  snow  or  hidden  in  the  ice-rifts. 

Procyonidse. — The  Raccoon  is  the  only  representative  of 
its  family  in  the  United  States.  It  derives  its  specific  name 
from  its  habit  of  dipping  its  food  in  the  water  before  eating. 
Though  its  entire  foot  is  naked,  yet  in  walking  it  does 
not,  like  the  bear,  Fig 

bring  its  whole  sole 
to  the  ground.  Om- 
nivorous in  its  food, 
it  is,  according  to 
circumstances,  a  fish- 
er, a  hunter,  a  trapper, 
a  reaper,  or  a  fly- 
catcher, having  the 
instinctive  cunning  of  ^J 
the  fox,  the  inquisi- 
tive meddlesomeness 
of  the  monkey,  the  greediness  of  the  bear,  and  the  slyness  of 
the  cat. 


Procyon  lotor,  Raccoon,  or  Common  "  Coon. 


*  Its  sense  of  smell  being  exceedingly  keen,  several  are  frequently  collected  about 
a  carcass.  This  fact  has  given  rise  to  the  idea  that  the  Pokr,  unlike  other  Bears,  is 
social  in  its  nature.  The  ice-fields  on  which  it  lives  are  often  detached  and  float  off. 
carrying  it  to  sea,  where  it  has  been  descried  by  sailors  a  hundred  miles  from  land. 


CLASS    MAMMALS:     ORDER    CARNIVORA. 


Fig.  63. 


Bassaridse. — The  Civet  Cat  *  is  raccoon-like  in  appear- 
ance and  habits,  but  differs  in  the  length  and  size  of  its 
banded  tail,  and  its 
more  arboreal  life. 
The  California  miners 
make  it  a  domestic 
pet. 

OtariidaD.f  —  The 
Eared  Seals  are  prin- 
cipally found  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  The 
most  remarkable  spe- 
cies is  the  Northern  Bass&ris  QM^  Civet  Cat 
Sea  Bear, I  so  called 
from  the  striking  resemblance  of  its  head  to  that  of  the 

Fiq.  ei:~ 


*  The  true  Civets,  Viverridae,  belong  to  the  Old  World,  while  the  Civet  Cat  is 
found  in  the  New. 

t  The  three  following  families  are  grouped  under  the  general  name  of  Pinnipeds 
(fin-footed),  or  Pinnigrades  (fin-walker?). 

t  The  Sea  Lion  (Enmetoplas  stellSri)  is  a  species  of  the  Eared  Seals  with  habits 
similar  to  those  of  the  Sea  Bear,.  Full-grown  males  are  often  thirteen  feet  long  and 
weigh  nearly  a  ton.  In  the  harbor  of  San  Francisco  hundreds  of  these  animals  are 
seen,  scrambling  over  the  steep  rocks,  biting  and  pushing  off  their  comrades,  and 
rolling  over  one  another,  keeping  up,  meanwhile,  a  peculiar  and  incessant  barking, 


50 


SUBKItfGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


Ursidae.  It  is  polygamous,  families  of  over  a  hundred,  with 
one  male  chief,  keeping  entirely  separate.  Each  dam,  in 
returning  from  a  fishing  excursion,  will  pass  by  thousands  of 
others  lying  along  the  shore  and  bleating  like  sheep,  till  it 
comes  to  its  single  cub.  The  Sea  Bear  furnishes  the  choicest 
seal  fur. 

Fig.  65. 


„  Skeleton  of  Seal. 

Phocidse. — The  Common  Seal  abounds  upon  the  Atlantic 
coast.  The  different  species  vary  in  length  from  three  to 
twenty  feet  and  present  every  variety  of  marking  and  color. 

Mg.  66. 


Phoca  mtuftna,  Common  Seal. 

Their  eyes  are  large  and  full  of  intelligence,*  and  the  animal 
is  easily  tamed. 

*  Emerging  unexpectedly  from  the  depths  of  the  sea,  with  dripping  manes  (which 
gome  species  possess)  and  uttering  a  feminine  scream,  it  is  not  strange  that  the 
imagination  has  mistaken  them  for  human  beings  and  given  rise  to  the  legends  of 


CLASS   MAMMALS:    ORDER  CARNIVORA.  51 

Fig.  67. 


Fin.  68. 


Rosmdrus  obZsus,  Walrus. 

Rosmaridae. — The  Walrus,  unlike  the  seal,  has  neither 
lower  incisors  nor  canines,  while  the  upper  canines  project 
downward,  sometimes  two  feet.  By 
moans  of  these  and  the  yacuum- 
forming  soles  of  its  feet,  it  often 
ascends  almost  perpendicular  ice- 
herg3  a  hundred  feet  high.  It  is 
omnivorous,  feeding  on  shrimps, 
small  fish,  young  seals,  and  marine 
vegetables,  using  its  tusks  for  grub- 
bing up  the  plants  on  the  sea-bottom. 
The  parental  affection  of  the  dams 
is  great,  and  on  the  first  alarm  they 
take  their  cubs  under  their  fins  and 
escape  to  the  water.* 


Canine  Teeth  and  Underjaw 
of  Walrus. 


tritons,  sirens,  sea-nymphs,  and  mermaids.  All  the  Phocidse  have  the  singular 
habit  of  swallowing  stones,  as  many  as  four  pounds  of  sharp  pebbles  having  been 
found  in  a  single  stomach,  hut  no  satisfactory  explanation  of  this  phenomenon  has 
been  given. 

*  The  Seal  and  the  Walrus  are  the  subsistence  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Arctic 
regions.  The  flesh  furnishes  food ;  the  fat,  light  and  fuel ;  the  lining  of  the 
intestines,  windows  for  their  enow-huts;  the  skin,  clothes,  thongs  and  boats; 
the  tendons  supply  thread  and  bow-strings  j  and  the  teeth,  hunting  implements. 


SUBKIKGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


Fig.  69. 


ORDER     UNGULATA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  distinguishing  feature 
of  this  extensive  order  is  that  the  toe-nails  form  hoofs.  The 
Families  differ  in  almost  every  other  respect* 

Ruminant  Digestion.— The  food  of  Kuminants  con- 
sists of  vegetable  matter,  little  nutritious,  and  hence  demanded 
in  large  quantities.  As  they  are  in  turn  the  food  of  carniv- 
orous animals,  and  their  only  safety  lies  in  flight,  while 
mastication  is  a  work  of  time,  they  fill  a  large  stomach- 
reservoir  by  rapid  grazing,  re-chewing  its  contents  in  a  place 
of  security.  The  stomach  is  divided  into  four  compartments. 

The  food  passes  without  mas- 
tication into  the  rumen  (p)9 
next  into  the  reticulum  (b), 
thence  back  through  the 
oesophagus  (o)  to  the  mouth, 
where  it  is  masticated ;  then 
down  the  oesophagus  a  second 
time  into  the  leaflet  (/),  and 
thence  into  the  caittette  (c)  or 
true  stomach.  The  mechanism 
by  which  the  food  goes  through 
the  same  orifice  at  the  bottom 
of  the  oesophagus,  at  one  time 
into  the  rumen  and  at  another 
into  the  leaflet,  may  well  create 
surprise.  The  oesophagus  is 
continued  below  in  a  tube  (c  a),  with  a  slit  on  the  under 
side  whose  lip-like  edges  shut  water-tight,  forming  a  passage 
from  the  oesophagus  to  the  leaflet.  If,  however,  the  mouth- 
ful of  food  swallowed  be  large  and  solid,  as  it  is  when  first 
eaten,  it  distends  the  tube,  and,  separating  the  edges  of  the 
slit,  falls  into  the  first  stomach ;  but  if  it  be  soft  and  pulpy, 
as  it  is  after  being  re-chewed,  it  does  not  force  apart  the  edges 


Stomach  of  a  Ruminant. 


*  Those  having  the  number  of  toes  even  are  styled  Artiodactyls,  and  odd,  Perisso 
dactyls.    The  Artiodactyls  that  chew  the  cud  are  termed  Ruminants. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  U^GULATA. 


53 


of  the  slit,  and  so  reaches  the  third  stomach.  Here  it  under- 
goes further  preparation  and  passes  directly  into  the  fourth 
stomach,  where  the  actual  process  of  digestion  is  carried  on. 
The  mechanism  for  conveying  the  unchewed  mass  in  the 
first  stomach  back  into  the  mouth  also  depends  upon  the 
lip-like  tube.  The  contraction  of  the  walls  of  the  rumen 
forces  portions  of  the  food  into  the  reticulum;  in  turn,  the 
contraction  of  its  walls  crowds  a  part  against  the  outside  of 
the  lips,  which,  opening,  pinch  off  a  portion,  and,  compress- 
ing it  into  a  ball,  present  it  to  the  oesophagus,  the  fibres  of 
which,  contracting  successively  from  below  upward,  push  it 
forward  into  the  mouth. 

The  order  can  be  tabulated  into  Families  by  a  comparison 
of  their  hoofs  and  horns: 


C  WITHOUT  HORNS  ; 


WITH 

HORNS, 
(WITH 
ONE 

EXCEP- 
TION.) * 


Persistent :  (  By  hairy  skin. 
covered,    (  By  a  7iorny  case. 

Deciduous  ;    Of  solid  bone. 


Camelid33, 


Giraffidae, 
Bovidae, 


Camel. 

Giraffe. 
Ox,  etc. 


FOUR  TOES ; 


Perissodactyl  ; 


Antilocaprida?,     Prong  horn. 
Cervidae,  Deer,  etc. 

Hippopotamida?,  Hippopotamus. 
Suidae,  Hog. 

Dicotylidae,          Peccary. 


<  ONE  TOE;     . 
( THREE  TOES ; 


Equidae, 


Horse,  etc. 


Rhinocerotidae,    Rhinoce.  os. 
Tapiridae,  Tapir. 


Camelidae. — Camels 
have  two  toes,  united 
nearly  to  the  point  by 
the  callous  sole.  The 
second  stomach  is  used 
as  a  receptacle  for 
water,  the  excess  over- 
flowing into  cells  along 
the  upper  part  of  the 
first  stomach,  which 
the  animal  can  open  at 
will,  and  supply  the 
moisture  necessary  for  digestion. 


**• 


skeleton  of  a  Camel. 


54 


SUE-KINGDOM     VERTEBBATA. 
.  71.  Mg. 


Foot  of  a  Camel. 


Water-cells  of  CameTs  Stymach. 


The  Family  is  tabulated  as  follows : 


CAMELIDXE.  - 


Toes       1 
united        !   ONE  HUMP  ;             Camelus    dromedarius,     Diomedary. 
|   Two  HUMPS  ;           Camelus    bactrianus,        Bacti  ian  Camei 
to  the  nail.  J 

V  WITHOUT  HUMP  ;    Auchenia  llama, 
separated,    j 

Llama. 

The   Dromedary  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  sterile  regions. 
Its  long  neck,  incisors  and  canines  in  both  jaws,  prehensile, 

cleft  upper  lip,  and 
narrow  cheek-bones, 
enable  it  to  crop  its 
food  of  thorny 
bushes  by  the  way- 
side without  retard- 
ing its  speed;  its 
hairy  nostrils,  which 
close  intuitively, 
?,  protect  it  from  in- 
haling the  particles 
driven  by  the  si- 


Camelusdromedanus,  Dromedary, 


moOm  ;      its     broad, 


cushioned  foot  prevents  its  sinking  in  the  sand;  its  many- 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  UXGULATA.  55 

celled  stomach  enables  it  to  go  a  week  without  drink,  and 
the  gradual  absorption  of  its  fatty  hump  as  long  without 
food ;  its  callosities  on  the  breast  and  joints  permit  its  kneel- 
ing to  receive  its  load;  its  projecting  eye,  sheltered  from 
the  sun  by  a  double  lid  and  a  bony  arch,  and  with  the  sight 
habitually  directed  to  the  path,  gives  sure-footedness.* 

Fig.  74. 


Camelus  bacf.rianus,  Bactrian  Camel.    £ 


The  Bactrian  Camel  has  two  humps,  and  is  adapted  to 
cold  climates,  as  the  dromedary  is  to  hot. 

*  The  camel,  poetically  called  by  the  Arab  the  "ship  of  the  desert,"  constitutes 
his  wealth.  Its  milk,  and  often  its  flesh,  furnishes  him  food;  its  skin,  leather;  its 
hair,  clothing;  its  excrement,  fuel ;  and,  in  an  extremity,  the  water  in  its  stomach 
will  save  his  life.  It  will  carry  600  and  even  1000  Ibs.  burden.  A  swift  dromedary 
will  travel  10  miles  per  hour  for  20  hours  on  a  stretch.  Its  gait  has  a  peculiar  swing- 
ing, jerking  motion  that  is  terribly  trying  to  the  novice.  Its  disposition  is  said  to  be 
naturally  gentle,  but  the  brutality  of  its  drivers  often  renders  it  ugly.  Thus  says  a 
traveler :  Watch  it  when  it  is  being  loaded.  See  its  keeper  struggling  frantically,  and 
making  it  kneel  only  by  sheer  force,  and  when  down,  keeping  it  there  by  tying  neck 
and  fore  legs  together  tightly.  Hear  it  grumbling  in  deep,  bubbling  tones,  with 
mouth  savagely  opened  as  each  new  burden  is  laid  on  its  back.  Look  how  it  refuses 
to  rise  until  a  part  is  removed;  then  see  it  get  up— a  great,  brown  mountain,  still 
groaning  and  bubbling— and  dash  to  and  fro,  shaking  off  beds,  furniture,  and  trunks 
in  a  shower.  Mark  it,  subduecl  by  Hows,  march  through  the  day,  occasionally  biting 
at  a  passer-by,  and  at  night  kneel  to  have  its  load  removed,  grumbling  as  ever. 
Certainly  not  the  picture  of  our  ideal  patient  animal  I 


56 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 

7.75. 


fig.  76. 


Auchema  llama,  Llama, 

The  Llama,  the  camel  of  the  New  World,  is  of  small  size, 
and  has  no  humps.  To  adapt  it  to  its 
home  in  the  Andes,  its  cushioned  toes 
are  completely  divided,  and  its  nails 
project  so  as  to  hook  downward,  and 
give  it  a  fearless  step  among  the  crags. 
Giraffidse.— The  Giraffe,  inhabit- 
ing the  arid  regions  of  Africa,  where 
herbage  quickly  disappears  after  the 
rainy  season,  is  adapted  by  its  long 
neck  *  to  browse  upon  the  branches  of 
trees.  There  is  an  apparent  difference 
in  the  length  of  the  fore  and  hind 
legs;  but  the  heads  of  the  humerus 
and  femur  are  on  a  level,  and  the  great 
height  of  the  fore-shoulder  is  caused 


Foot  of  Llama. 


*  Seven— the  typical  number  of  cervical  vertebra 
for  all  mammals— is  not,  however,  varied  from. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDEH   UKGULATA.  57 

by  the  length  of  the  scapula  and  the  spinous  processes.  As 
its  greatest  enemy  is  the  low-crouching  lion,  that  usually 
springs  upon  its  prey  from  behind,  its  eye  is  so  placed  on  the 
side  of  the  head,  that  it  can  see  backward  as  well  as  forward ; 

Fig.  77. 


Skeleton  of  a  Giraffe. 

and,  as  the  danger  is  from  below,  while  its  food  is  above,  the 
sensitive  tufts  on  the  tips  of  its  skin-covered  horns  indicate, 
as  it  stalks  among  the  trees,  the  presence  of  leaves  overhead. 
It  uses  its  short  horns  for  defence  by  a  sidelong  sweep  of  the 
neck  rather  than  by  butting.  Its  chief  reliance,  however,  is 
on  rapid  and  powerful  kicks — sufficient  to  break  the  skull  of 


58 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBEATA. 


Mg.  78. 


Fig.  79. 


Eyes  of  a  Giraffe. 
Fig.  80. 


Tongue  of  a  Giraffe.  Camdoparddlis  giraffa,  Giraffe.    5V 

lion.  The  long  tongue  is  prehensile,  and  so  flexible  as  to 
be  flattened  and  rounded  like  a  plate,  or  contracted  to  enter 
a  quill.  In  mimicry  it  resembles  the  branchless  trunks  among 
which  it  stalks  and  upon  whose  umbrella  tops  it  feeds.  * 

Bovidse. — The  Ox  family  comprises  ruminants  having 
horns  and  cloven  feet.  It  may  be  tabulated  according  to  the 
structure  of  the  horns. 

*  "In  the  case  of  the  Giraffe,  which  is  invariably  met  among  venerable  forests, 
•where  innumerable  blasted  and  weather-beaten  trunks  occur,  I  have  repeatedly  been 
in  doubt  as  to  its  presence,  until  I  had  recourse  to  my  spy-glass;  and  on  referring 
the  case  to  my  savage  attendants  1  have  known  even  their  optics  to  fail,  at  one  time 
mistaking  these  dilapidated  trunks  for  camelopards,  and  again  confounding  real 
camelopards  with  these  aged  veterans  of  the  forest."—  Gumming" s  Adventures. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  UNGULATA. 


59 


Bony  axis  of  Horns 

with  cells,  which 
communicate  through    • 
ths  frontal   sinus  with 
the  nose      Horns  curve 


OUT-WARD, 

I 

DOWNWARD, 

r  Ovibos  moschatus, 

Musi;  Ox. 

THEN   UPWARD. 

J 

r  Bos  taurus, 

Domestic  Ox. 

TO  THE  SIDE, 

j    Bos  americanus, 

Bifon. 

THEN  UPWARD  OR 

\   Bos  bubalus, 

Buffalo. 

FORWARD,   IN  A 

Bos  grunniens, 

Yak. 

CRESCENT. 

t  Bos  indicus, 

Zebu. 

r  Aplocerus  montanus, 

Mountain  Goat. 

Antilope  nipicapra, 

Chamois. 

j  Antilope  dorcas, 

Gazdle. 

*     DIVERT  FORM. 

1   Antilope  kudu, 

Koodoo. 

J   Antilope  gnu, 

Gnu. 

I  Antilope  oryx, 

Gemslok. 

UPWARD 

"I 

AND    BACKWARD  ; 

1   Capra  aegagrus, 

Goat. 

FOREHEAD 

f  Capra  ibex, 

Ibex. 

CONCAVE. 

J 

BACKWARD   THEN 

SPIRALLY 

Ovis  montana, 

Mountain  Shtf.p 

FORWARD  ; 

Ovis  aries, 

Domestic  Sheep. 

FOREHEAD 

CONVEX. 

Bony  axis  of  Horns 

without  cells  or  pores. 

Horns  curve 


The  Musk  Ox,  so 
called  from  the 
flavor  of  its  flesh, 
inhabits  Arctic 
North  America.*  It 
feeds  on  grass  and 
lichens.  The  horns 
widen  at  the  base, 
so  as  entirely  to 
cover  the  crown  of 
the  head. 

Difference  be- 
tween Herbivora 
and  Carnivora.f 
— A  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  Ruminants  is  the  elevation  of  the  heel,  which 
compels  the  animal  to  walk  upon  its  nails  (the  Camelidse 
excepted).  The  Garni vora  bring  the  entire  toes  to  the  ground, 

*  The  Esquimaux  hunters  will  attack  this  irritable  animal  with  only  a  knife,  and 
turning  around  quicker  than  it  can" wheel,  stab  it  to  death. 

t  A  comparison  of  Fig*.  27.  65,  77,  82,  will  show  that  the  differences  in  the  various 
parts  of  the  skeleton  are  those  of  relative  size  and  adaptation  rather  than  of  number. 


Ombos  moschatus,  Musk  Ox. 


60 


SUBKIXGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


and  being  thus  unable  to  outrun  their  victims,  pounce  upon 
them   from   concealment.      The    Carnivora    have    incisors, 

canines,  and  molars,  but 
many  of  the  Herbivora 
lack  upper  incisors,  and 
all,  true  canines,  while 
the  surfaces  of  the 
molars  are  no  longer 
trenchant,  but  ridged 
either  longitudinally  or 
transversely. 

The  Domestic  Ox 
evinces  no  trace  of  its 
origin  or  that  of  its  nu- 
merous varieties.  En- 
dowed by  the  Creator 
with  inherent  qualities 
adapting  the  genus  to 
easy  acclimation,  it  is 
everywhere  found  the 
companion  of  civilized  man.  There  are  in  this  country  three 
noted  breeds,  each  distinguished  for  peculiar  excellencies.  * 

Fig.  Sit. 


Skeleton  of  a  Cow. 
Fig.  83. 


Teeth  of  Herbivora. 


Short  Horn. 

The  Short  Horn,  or  Durham,  from  Durham  county,  England, 


*  A  careful  study  of  Fijrs.  84,  85  and  86  will  clearly  define  the  points  of  distinction 
in  these  varieties,  and  enable  the  student  to  identify  each  in  a  herd  or  at  a  Fair. 


CLASS    MAMMALS:     OEDER    UNGULATA.  61 

Fig.  85. 


is  pre-eminent  for  beef.  The  Jersey,  from  the  island  of 
Jersey,  is  unrivaled  for 
the  quality,  and  the 
Ayrshire,  from  Ayr- 
shire, Scotland,  for  the 
quantity  of  its  milk. 

The  Bison  is  the 
only  boyine,  except  the 
Musk  Ox,  indige- 
nous to  America.* 
Originally  ranging  in 


Bos  a'inericanus,  Bison. 


*  Having  the  distinctive  hnmp  on  the  fore-shoulders,  it  is  a  true  Bison  and  not  a 
Buffalo,  as  it  is  generally  called. 


SUBKINGDOM    VERT  EBR  ATA. 


mmense  herds  over  the  most  of  the  United  States,  it  is 
.ow  found  only  on  the  great  plain  between  the  Mississippi 
nd  the  Eocky  Mountains  and  is  fast  becoming  extinct.  The 
Id  males  sometimes  weigh  a  ton,  and  though  so  cumbrous 

in  appearance,  are 
very  swift.  Their 
horns  are  used  for 
defence,  and  for  tear- 
ing up  roots  and  fur- 
rowing the  snow  in 
search  of  food. 

The     Buffalo    in- 
habits the   southern 
part  of  Asia,  and  is 
BOS  bubdius,  Bumio.  distinguished    by   its 

enormous  horns.  Their  bases  are  of  great  strength,  while 
their  length  exceeds  four  feet,  with  tips  five  feet  apart.  In 
order  to  use  even  the  tamest  Buffalo,  a  ring  is  put  in  its  nose. 
The  traveler  over  the  Campagna  of  Rome  often  sees  these 
wild-looking  animals  employed  in  agricultural  labor. 

Fig.  89. 


Bos  grunmens,  Yak.    <V 

The  Yak,  or  grunting  ox,  is  found  both  wild  and  domesti- 
cated in  Central  Asia.  Its  characteristics  are  so  modified  by 
subjugation  as  to  produce  many  tame  varieties. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  UKGULATA.  63 

Fig.  90. 


Fig.  91. 


Bos  incftcus,  Zebu.    ^ 

The  Zebu  is  the  beast  of  burden  for  the  eastern  coast  of 
Africa,  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  Southern  Asia.* 

The  Mountain  Goat  is  found  on  the  higher  slopes  of  the 

Eocky  Mountains.  It  has 
small,  jet  black,  ringed  horns, 
and  long  white  hair. 

The  Chamois  inhabits  the 
Alps,  living  in  small  flocks 
upon  the  giddy  heights  where 
the  eye  can  hardly  detect 
a  standing-place.  Springing 
diagonally  down  an  almost  per- 
pendicular rock  and  striking 
the  face  of  the  cliff  three  or 
four  times  with  its  feet,  it  will 
land  securely  at  the  desired 

Aplocerus  montanus,  Mountain  Goat.  . 

point,  f   At  a  suspicious  sound 

a  flock  will  stand  for  an  incredible  time  as  quiet  and  fixed, 
apparently,  as  the  rocks  around  them.  A  sentinel  is  always 
posted  to  give  the  signal  of  danger. 

*  It  is  not  a  bison  though  it  has  the  distinctive  hump,  for  the  bison's  consists  of 
muscles  that  move  the  head,  while  the  hump  of  the  Zebu  is  composed  of  fat. 

t  Though  chamois-hunting  srmong  the  Alpine  fastnesses  is  attended  with  great 
peril,  so  that  in  one  instance  father,  son,  and  grandson  successively  perished  in  the 
pursuit,  yet  the  occupation  is  so  fascinating  as  to  be  rarely  relinquished. 


64 


SUBKIKGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


Fig.  92. 


Fig.  93. 


AntUope  rupicapra,  Chamois. 


A.  dorcas,  Gazelle. 


The  Gazelle  has  an  elegant  form  ;  black,  round,  and  thick 
horns ;  large,  dark,  and  lustrous  eyes ;  *  and  a  swiftness  so 
great  that  the  greyhound  cannot  overtake  it. 


A.  kudu,  Koodoo. 


The  Koodoo  is  characterized  by  its  curiously  twisted  horns. 
It  inhabits  South  Africa,  and  is  exceedingly  handsome  and 
graceful. 


*  These   are   so   proverbially  beautiful   as   to   give    rise  to    the    expression 
1  gazelle-eyed."    (See  Moore's  Lalla  Rookh— The  Fire-Worshippers.) 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDEE  UNGULATA.  65 

The  Gnu  resembles  the  horse,  buffalo,  and  deer.    It  is, 
however,  a  bovine  antelope.* 


'.95. 


The  Oryx,  or  Gemsbok,  is  sometimes  called  the  Unicorn, 
as  its  straight  horns,  seen  in  profile,  so  exactly  cover  each 
other  as  to  seem  but  one.  It  is 
the  only  antelope  that  defends 
itself  against  the  lion;  receiv- 
ing its  enemy  on  the  point  of 
its  sharp  horns,  which  serve  as 
natural  bayonets. 

The  Goat9  notwithstanding 
its  diversity  in  form,  color, 
shape  of  horns,  and  in  fineness 
of  hair— which  in  some  species 
approximates  wool  —  possesses 
characteristics  bringing  it  into 
the  unity  of  a  genus.  It  is  an 
indiscriminate  feeder,  thriving 
upon  many  plants  that  are  poisonous  to  other  ruminants,  and 

*  Gnus  live  in  herds,  often  mixing  with  ostriches,  zebras,  and  giraffes  in  one 
great  mass.  When  alarmed  they  spring  up,  and  whisking  their  long  white  tails,  pur- 
sue one  another  at  full  speed,  pawing,  kicking,  and  the  hulls  fighting  and  tumbling 
down  at  every  shock.  This  strange  conduct  has  given  them  the  name  of  Wildebeeste 
among  the  Dutch  settlers.  Gnus  are  so  timid  that  at  the  first  sight  of  a  strange 
object  they  will  set  off  as  if  half-crazy  with  fear,  but  their  curiosity  soon  leads  them  to 
return  to  inspect  it,  though  at  the. risk  of  their  lives.  A  hunter,  by  merely  tying  a 
red  handkerchief  to  the  muzzle  of  his  gun,  has  thus  enticed  a  herd  within  musket 
range.  He  must  look  out,  however,  lest  they  charge  down  upon  him  so  savagely  as 
in  turn  to  put  him  to  flight.— (Wood.) 


66 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBKATA. 


thus  serves  in  the  great  creative  scheme  to  diminish  weeds 
that  would  become  excessive  in  grazing  districts.*    It  is  the 

cow  of  the  European 
peasantry,  a  pair 
often  yielding  half 
the  support  of  a 
family. 

The  Ilex  differs 
from  the  Goat  in 
having  longer  and 
recurved  horns,  with 
two  longitudinal 
ridges  instead  of  one, 
and  their  transverse 
markings  knotted. 
The  Goat  inhabits 

Fig.  98. 


Vapra  cegagrus.  Goat. 


Capra  ibex,  Ibex.    ^. 


*  It  prefers  steep  and  solitary  placep,  leaping  singly,  or  even  when  two  are  tiea 
together,  across  frightful  chasms,  and  always  alighting  in  concert  at  the  desired  spot. 
If  two  meet  in  a  narrow  path,  one  will  lie  down  and  the  other  walk  over  its 
back.— Cashmere  shawls,  kid  gloves,  morocco  leather,  goafs-hair  wigs,  and  rock 
venison  are  luxuries  derived  from  these  humble  but  useful  animals. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  UNGULATA.  67 

the  lower  stage  of  mountain  slopes,  the  Chamois  the  middle, 
and  the  Ibex  the  highest* 

The  Mountain  Sheep,  found  wild  on  the  Eocky  Mountain 
slopes,  differs  from  the  Ibex  in  having  a  convex  forehead, 
horns  directed  backward,  then  spirally  forward,  and  two 
kinds  of  hair,  one  being  crimped.  It  feeds  on  grassy  knolls 

Fig.  99. 


Oms  montana,  Mountain  Sheep.    Ji- 

surrounded  by  craggy  rocks,  to  which  it  retreats  when 
attacked  by  wolves.  Its  horns  sometimes  grow  so  long  and 
curve  so  far  forward  and  downward  that  it  cannot  graze  on 
level  ground. 

The  Domestic  Sheep  exhibits  no  less  than  forty  well-marked 
varieties,  and  yet  so  shading  into  one  another  that  all  have 
doubtless  originated  from  a  common  stock. f  Its  sharp, 

*  The  story  of  the  Ibex  throwing  itself  from  lofty  precipices  and  landing  upon  its 
horns  is  considered  a  myth,  though  often  reported  by  the  earlier  Naturalists. 

t  The  influence  of  climate  is  remarkably  ehown  in  the  tendency  of  the  Merino 
breed  to  develop  an  additional  pair  of  horns  when  transferred  from  Spain  to  Peru. 
A  breed  found  in  Syria  have  tails  weighing  from  seventy-five  to  a  hundred  pounds, 


StJBKlNGDOM    VERTEBKATA. 


Fig.  100. 


Fig.  101. 


chisel-like  incisors  and  cleft  upper  lip  enable  it  to  bite  closer 
than  the  Ox,  and  thus  procure  sustenance  where  that  animal 

would  starve.  The 
Groat,  in  defending 
itself,  rears  upon  its 
hind  legs,  and  comes 
down  head  first  upon 
its  opponent  with 
the  weight  of  its 
body;  the  Sheep  runs 
forward  and  butts 
with  the  combined 
force  of  its  weight 

Ovis  aries,  Sheep.  and  impetus. 

Antilocapridae.— The  Prong-horn  Antelope  is  allied  both 
to  the  Antelope  and  the  Goat.  Like  the  former,  its  horns 
contain  an  osseous  core,  but 
unlike  it  they  are  deciduous, 
and  have  a  prong  about  mid- 
way. The  hair  on  the  body 
stands  out  straight,  and, 
being  hollow  like  a  bird's 
feather,  when  bent  will  not 
resume  its  form. 

Cervidae.  —  The  Deer 
Family  have  solid,  deciduous 
horns,  which  are  cast  an- 
nually, and  at  each  renewal 
grow  larger  and  more  branch- 
ing.  Two  cartilaginous  ^J 
prominences  first  appear  on 
the  forehead.  These  ossify 
and  form  the  horns,  which 
are  still  covered  with  velvety  skin.  Soon  a  ring  of  bone 

which  the  shepherds  support  with  a  board  set  on  wheels.  In  Angola  is  a  variety 
called  the  goitred  sheep  from  its  having  two  lobes  of  fat  beneath  the  throat,  which, 
like  the  hump  of  the  Dromedary,  serve  it  for  food  during  the  dry  season. 


AntUocapra  americana,  Prong-horn. 


CLASS    MAMMALS  I     ORDER    UtfGULATA. 


69 


gathers  around  the  base  of  each  horn,  with  passages  for  the 
arteries.  These  openings  narrow,  and  gradually  shut  off  the 
blood,  that  it  may  not  by  a  sudden  stoppage  rush  to  the 
brain  and  produce  apoplexy.  The  velvet,  now  deprived  of 
its  nourishment,  soon  withers  and  is  rubbed  off,  leaving  the 
white  horn  beneath.  The  Family  is  classified  into  Genera 
by  the  conformation  of  the  antlers : 


(  BROADLY. 

Alces 

malchis, 

Moose. 

PALMATED,  •< 
'  AT  TIPS. 

(   Rangifer 
")  Rangifer 

tarandus, 
caribou, 

Reindeer. 
Caribou. 

Horns 

4 

developed  ; 

BENDING 
BACKWARD. 

j  Cervus 
(  Cervus 

canadensis, 
capreolus, 

Wapiti. 
Roebuck. 

Q 

oe 

CONICAL;      - 

BENDING 

FORWARD. 

|  Cervus 

virginianus, 

Deer. 

Ul 

u 

PRONGS  PARTLY 

t  Cervus 

dama, 

Fallow  Deer. 

UNITED. 

J 

Horns  not  developed  ; 

Moschus 

moschiferus, 

Musk  Deer. 

The  Moose,  once  abundant  in  the  northern  parts  of  North 
America,  is  now  becoming  extinct.     Its  broad,  palmated 

Fig.  102. 


Alces  malchis,  Mooee.    ^.     . 

horns,  weighing  fifty  to  sixty  pounds,  are  used  in  bending 
down  boughs  and  ploughing  up  the  snow.  For  defence,  it 
relies  upon  rapid  blows  with  its  fore  feet — a  stroke  of  which 
will  kill  a  wolf.  Its  pace  is  a  quick  trot,  the  feet  being  lifted 
so  as  to  pass  over  a  fence  five  feet  high  without  apparent 
change  of  step. 


70 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


Fig.  105. 


The  Reindeer*  has  widely-spreading  hoofs,  as  a  special  pro- 
vision for  traveling  on  the  snow ;  while  to  give  a  secure  hold 

upon  the  crags,  the 
toes  of  the  closed  foot 
are  firm  and  pointed. 
In  summer,  it  subsists 
upon  Arctic  shrubs, 
and  in  winter  upon 
moss,  which  it  detects 
under  the  snow  by  its 
keen  smell,  and  digs 
up  with  the  palmated 
tips  of  its  antlers,  f 
The  Wapiti, 


Rangifer  tarandv.s,  Reindeer. 
Fig.  1QU. 


Hoof  of  Reindeer,  closed  and  open. 

horns  are  divided  into  three  branches, 
pairs  for  life,  and  lives  in  families. 


or 

American  Elk,  iden- 
tical with  the  red  deer 
or  stag  of  Northern 
Europe,  has  long, 
branching,"  conical 
horns,  sometimes  six 
feet  apart  at  the  tips. 
The  Roe'buc'h, 
marked  by  its  white 
haunches,  is  the  small- 
est of  the  British  deer. 
Its  short,  straight 
Unlike  other  deer,  it 


*  The  Caribou  of  North  America  is  now  considered  identical  with  the  Reindeer 
of  Lapland,  and,  if  domesticated,  would  doubtless,  in  a  few  generations,  show  as 
many  varieties. 

t  Harnessed  to  a  sledge,  with  only  a  collar  and  a  trace  passing  between  its  legs, 
and  guided  by  a  single  rein  attached  to  its  neck,  the  Reindeer  easily  draws  its  mas- 
ter over  the  snow  a  hundred  miles  a  day.  It  has  been  known  to  run  nearly  19  miles 
in  an  hour  and  150  in  19  hours.  To  the  Laplander,  it  is  at  once  horse,  cow,  and 
sheep.  Its  horns  supply  tools  ;  its  hide  and  hair,  clothing ;  and  its  flesh  and  milk, 
food.  Without  it  Lapland  would  be  uninhabitable.  The  inhabitants  reckon  their 
wealth  by  their  reindeer,  as  the  Arabs  do  by  their  camels.  A  rich  Laplander  owns 
one  thousand  or  more. 


CLASS   MAMMALS:    ORDER  UNGULATA. 

Fig.  105. 


Cervus  canadensis,  Wapiti. 
Fig.  106. 


SUBKIKGDOM    VEKTEBRATA. 


Fig.  107. 


The  Virginia  Deer  is  common  in  the  United  States.  It 
differs  in  size  according  to  locality,  the  Southern  specimens 

being  smaller.*  Its  antlers  bend 
forward,  with  varying  prongs. 
The  males  while  fighting  some- 
times interlock  their  antlers, 
and,  unable  to  release  them- 
selves, perish  miserably.  The 
spotted  young  are  called  Fawns, 
and  may  be  easily  domesticated. 
The  sagacity  of  the  deer  is  shown 
in  taking  to  the  water  when 
hunted  with  dogs,  its  greater 
height  giving  it  a  footing,  while 
they,  compelled  to  swim,  are  comparatively  helpless. 

The  Fallow  Deer,  so  called  from  its  tawny  brown  color,  is 
the  domesticated  species  of  the  English  parks.  A  large  buck 
takes  the  lead  of  the  herd,  and  suffers  none  but  a  few  favorites 
to  approach  his  regal  presence. 

Fig.  108. 


Genus  virginianus,  Virginia  deer. 


*  The  deer  is  a  great  destroyer  of  rattlesnakes,  cutting  them  to  pieces  by  alighting 
upon  them  with  all  four  feet.— Its  skin  is  tanned  by  the  Indians  by  pounding  in  a 
solution  of  its  own  brains,  and  is  known  as  "  buck-skin." 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDEK  TOGTJLATA. 


73 


The  Mu*le  Deer  of  Thibet  has  no  horns,  the  male  having 
two  sharp   projecting  mg  m 

upper  canines.  It  fur- 
nishes the  musk  of 
commerce,  which  it 
secretes  in  a  kind  of 
pouch. 

Hippopotamidae. 
The  Hippopotamus  of 
Africa  is  amphibious, 
with  horizontally-pro- 
jecting lower  incisors  Moschus  moschiferus,  Musk  deer.  &. 

and     strong    vertical 

canines.  A  greedy  feeder,  it  sinks  to  the  bed  of  the  sluggish 
stream,  where  it  can  remain  six  or  eight  minutes,  digs  up  a 
quantity  of  aquatic  vegetation,  rises  to  the  top,  and,  washing 

Mg.  110. 


the  mass,  devours  it  while  leisurely  floating  on  the  surface.  It 
is  exactly  fitted  to  dredge  the  rivers  and  keep  open  the  chan- 
nels, so  apt  to  become  filled  with  the  luxuriant  growth  of 
that  tropical  region.  . 

Suidse. — The  Hog's  skull  is  adapted  to  rooting  in  the 
ground  for  food,  the  lower  canines  projecting  nearly  horizon- 


SUBKiNGDOM    VEKTEBKATA. 


Fig.  111. 


tally,  and  by  friction  upon  the  upper  being  sharpened  so  as 

to   constitute   formidable 
weapons. 

The  Wild  Boar  of  the 
Old  World  is  the  parent 
of  the  domestic  varieties 
and  of  the  wild  hogs  of 
the  New.  The  Babi- 
roussa,  found  in  Borneo, 
has  its  long  upper  canines 
recurved  in  a  semicircle. 

Skull  of  Hog.  , , 

thus   serving  to   protect 
the  eyes  in  rushing  through  the  bushes. 

The  Peccary  of  the  New  World  represents  the  Wild  Boar 
of  the  Old.  There  are  but  two  species,  the  collared  and  the 
white-lipped — the  former  living  in  families,*  and  the  latter  in 

Fig. 


*  The  whole  company  of  twenty  or  more  are  accustomed  to  back  singly  into  a 
hollow  log  to  sleep,  the  last  one  acting  as  a  sentinel.    This  one  being  shot,  the 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    OEDEE  UNGULATA.  75 

Fig.  IIS. 


Sus  babiroussa,  Babiroussa  Hog. 


herds  which  stretch 
out  for  miles  in  their 
destructive  m  i  g  r  a  - 
tions.  They  resem- 
ble pigs,  but  have 
slender  tusks  capable 
of  inflicting  terrible 
wounds. 

Equidae.  —  The 
Horse  family  have  a 
single  hoof*  to  each 
foot,  with  meta- 
carpals  elongated  so 
as  to  compel  them 
to  carry  the  heel 
(c)  high  up  from 
the  ground.  Strictly 
herbivorous  with  up- 
per and  lower  incis- 
ors, they  seem  design- 
ed to  crop  after  the 


.  nit. 


Dicot$Us  tarqucttus,  Peccary 


others  successively  take  its  plac§,  so  that,  if  skillfully  managed  by  the  hunter,  the 
whole  number  may  be  captured. 

*  The  earlier  fossil  species  had  five,  later  ones  four,  and  still  later  three  toes,  u*o 
indications  of  two  suppressed,  called  splint  bones,  being  still  seen. 


76 


SUBKIKGDOM    VEETEBEATA. 
Fig.  116. 


Fig.  117. 


Skeleton  of  Horse 

ox,  and  in  their  turn  to  be  followed  by  the  narrow-jawed  sheep 
with  the  cleft  upper  lip,  enabling  it  to  nibble  where  neither 

of  the  others  could 
thrust  its  wide 
mouth. 

The  Horse  has 
been  so  diversified 
by  domestication 
as  to  defy  all  at- 
tempts to  trace  its 
origin.*  It  is 
adapted  to  con- 
stant movement 
by  having  a  simple 
stomach  without  a 
Equus  cabaUus,  Horse.  gall  bladder  which 


*  Careful  research  proves  that  there  is  not  a  distinctive  Arabian  breed— often- 
times considered  the  parent  of  the  horse— any  more  than  there  is  a  Persian  or  an 
English  one. 


CLASS    MAMMALS:     ORDER    UKGULATA. 


77 


permits     uninterrupted  mff- 118- 

digestion.  Changing  its 
coat  of  hair  to  suit  the 
season,  it  is  easily  accli- 
mated; in  tropical  re- 
gions the  hair  remaining 
short  and  sparse,  in 
colder,  lengthening  to 
three  or  four  inches  and 
thickening  so  as  to  be- 
come almost  woolly. 

The  Ass  is  generally 
employed  by  the  peasan- 
try throughout  the  East. 
Feeding  upon  coarser  herbage  than  the  horse,  and  being 
more  patient  under  abuse,  it  is  better  adapted  to  be  the  slave 
of  the  poor.* 

The  Zebra  is  the  most  elegant  of  quadrupeds,  but  all 
attempts  to  domesticate  it  have  failed. 

Fig.  119. 


Equus  asm-us,  Wild  Ass. 


*  It  is  common  in  European  cities  to  see  these  animals  driven  every  morning  to 
the  door  of  the  sick  to  be  milked  for  their  use. 


78 


SUBKINGDOM    VEETEBRATA. 

Fig.  120. 


Fig.  131. 


Rhinoceros  wucorrtis,  One-horned  Rhinoceros,  India.    •£$. 

Rhinocerotidae.  * — The  Rhinoceros,  paradoxical  as  it  may 
seem,  possesses  a  skeleton  more  nearly  allied  to  the  horse 

than  any  other  hoofed 
quadruped.  It  has  a 
hard,  naked,  rough  skin, 
laid  in  large  folds,  and 
so  elastic  that  a  bullet 
or  spear -hole  imme- 
diately closes,  thus 
stanching  the  wound. 

Rhinoctroe  bicornis,  Two-horned  Rhinoceros.      The   horn    is    Composed 

of    agglutinized    hairs, 
!**•  and,    being    attached 

*  Closely  allied  to  the  rhi- 
noceros in  structure  is  the 
Hyrax,  the  only  genus  of  the 
order  Hyracoidea.  The  Da- 
man, in  its  various  species, 
is  a  rabbit-like  animal  found 
in  Syria,  Mozambique,  and 
Southern  Africa.  A  timid 
creature,  it  hides  itself  in  the 
clefts  of  the  rocks,  and  is, 
doubtless,  the  Coney  of  Scrip- 
Hyrax  syri&cus,  Daman.  £.  ture  (Proverbs  xxx,  26). 


Africa.    SV 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  PROBOSCIDEA. 


79 


only  to  the  skin,  is  movable ;  when,  however,  the  animal  is 
enraged,  it  becomes  fixed  as  though  a  part  of  the  bone  itself. 
Individuals  attain  the  weight  of  6000  pounds. 


Fig.  123. 


Taplnts  bicUor^  Indian  Archipelago. 

Tapiridae. — The  Tapir  links  the  artiodactyls  and  perisso- 
dactyls,  its  fore  feet  having  four  toes  and  its  hind  feet 
three.  Flight  being  its  Fig  m, 

only  means  of  defence, 
the  head,  covered  with 
hard  skin  and  shaped  like 
a  conical  wedge,  is  adapt- 
ed for  boring  through 
tangled  brushwood.  The 
uniform  black  color  of 
the  South  American  Ta- 
pir is  in  striking  contrast 
to  the  white  back  of  the 

Indian.  Taplrus  americanus. 


ORDER     PROBOSCIDEA. 

Elephantidse.— The  Elephant  is  the  largest  of  living 
quadrupeds,  attaining  eight  to  ten  feet  in  height  and  10,000 
pounds  in  weight.  It  roams  the  forest  in  herds  of  twenty  or 
more,  and  is  supposed  to  live  over  one  hundred  years.  Un- 


80 


SUBKINGDOM    VEKTEBKATA. 


Fig.  125. 


like  the  Horse,  it  has  the  metacarpal  bones  short- 
ened, so  that  the 
heel  (c)  is  brought 
near  the  ground. 
The  two  u  p  p  e  i 
incisors  are  pro- 
longed into  tusks, 
which  serve  for 
defence  and  for 
ploughing  up  the 
ground  to  obtain 
succulent  roots. 
The  nose  is  length- 
ened into  a  probos- 
SMeton  of  Elephant.  c|g  or  trunk  con- 

taining several  thousand  muscles,  which  permit  every 
conceivable  motion ;  while  a  mobile  lip  at  the  end  is  delicate 
enough  to  pick  up  a  grain  of  wheat.  This  enables  the 
Elephant  to  reach  its  food,  which  it 
could  not  do  with  its  mouth,  on 

Fig, 


a.  Tooth  of  Asiatic  Elephant. 

b.  Tooth  of  African  Elephant. 


Section  of  Elephant's  trunk. 


account  of  its  short  neck  and  huge  tusks.  Water  is  also 
drawn  into  the  trunk  by  suction,  and  then,  the  end  being 
inserted  into  the  mouth,  discharged  down  the  throat.  The 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  PROBOSCIDEA. 

Fig.  198. 


81 


Mg' m- 


Elephas  africanus,  African  Elephant. 

Asiatic  species  is  alone  tamed  at  the  present  day.* 
concave  forehead, 
small  ears,  and  the 
enamel  of  the  teeth 
arranged  in  trans- 
verse bands.  *  The 
African  species  has 
a  convex  forehead, 
enormous  ears,  and 
the  enamel  of  the 
teeth  lozen  ge- 
shaped.  Both  sexes 
have  tusks,  the 
male's  often  being 
eight  feet  long  and 
weighing  a  hundred 
pounds. 


It  has  a 


E.  indlcw,  Asiatic  Elephant. 


*  Its  intelligence  is  sometimes  almost  human.  It  can  he  taught  to  lay  stone  wall, 
and  to  pile  logs  uniformly,  rolling-them  up  an  inclined  plane.  It  is  even  entrusted 
with  the  care  of  youner  children— the  huge  nurse  being  lavish  in  its  attentions,  and 
when  its  charge  crawls  between  its  legs,  moving  with  the  utmost  caution,  and,  with 
its  trunk,  carefully  lifting  the  child  out  of  the  way.  Tennant,  in  his  work  on  Ceylon 


0/5  SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 

ORDER     SIRENIA, 

Trichechidae.— The  Manatee,  or  Sea  Cow  of  the  Florida 
coast,  has,  like  the  elephant,  a  short  neck,  dense  bones,  and 
the  nostril  in  the  end  of  the  snout.  It  has  no  hind  limbs, 

Fig,  130. 


,  f  -'^J 

TricKSchus  mandtus,  Manatee. 


and  its  fore  limbs  are  flippers,  with  vestiges  of  nails  on  the 
edges,  enabling  it  to  crawl  on  the  shore.  It  feeds  upon 
aquatic  plants,  whence  it  is  styled  an  "herbivorous  whale." 


ORDER  CETACEA. 

General  Characteristics.— The   Cetaceans  are  swim- 
ming, carnivorous  mammals.     They  have  nostrils  on  the  top 

says:  "  One  evening:  my  horse  manifested  uneasiness  at  a  sound  which  approached 
us  while  we  were  traveling  in  the  thick  jungle.  A  turn  in  the  road  soon  brought  UP  to 
a  tame  elephant,  without  an  attendant.  It  was  carrying  a  heavy  timber  which  it  had 
balanced  across  its  tusks,  but  the  path  being  narrow,  it  was  forced  to  bend  its  head 
BO  as  to  let  the  beam  pass  endways.  The  exertion  and  inconvenience  led  it  to  ry 
Urmph  I  TTrmph !  in  a  dissatisfied  tone,  and  it  was  this  sound  which  had  alarmed  my 
horse.  The  elephant,  on  seeing  us  halt,  stopped,  reconnoitered  us  for  a  moment, 
flung  down  the  timber,  and  forced  itself  back  into  the  brushwood  to  let  us  pass.  As 
my  horse  still  hesitated,  the  sagacious  creature  pressed  still  further  one  side,  repeating 
its  cry  of  Urmph  1  in  an  encouraging  tone,  as  if  bidding  us  come  on.  Finally  my 
horse  did  so  tremblingly,  and  when  we  were  by,  the  elephant  came  out,  lifted  the 
timber,  balanced  it  on  its  tusks,  and  resumed  its  march,  snorting  discontentedly  as 
before." 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    OKDER  CETACEA. 


83 


84 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBBATA. 


of  the  head  ;  fore-limbs,  which,  like  the  human  arm,  consist 
of  a  shoulder-blade,  humerus,  radius,  ulna,  and  five  fingers; 
a  tail,  horizontally  flattened  and  fluked;  and  no  hind  limbs. 
They  are  subdivided  into  Eamilies,  according  to  the  presence 
or  absence  of  teeth : 


CETACEA 


TEETH  IN  BOTH  JAWS. 
"      0  LOWER  JAW. 

"        WANTING. 


Delphinidae, 
Physeteridae, 
Balaeuidae, 


Dolphin. 
Sperm  Whale. 
Riyht  Whale. 


Fig.  133. 


Delphinidse.  —  The  Common  Porpoise  frequents  the 
mouths  of  rivers,  often  venturing  some  distance  up  stream  in 

pursuit    of   herring    and 
other  migratory  fish.  * 

The  Delphinus  delpliis 
is  the  Dolphin  f  of  Grecian 
mythology. 

The  Beluga  of  the  north- 
ern Atlantic   coast  is  re- 
markable when  mature  for 
the  clear  white  hue  of  its 
skin,  though  when  young  it  is  black. 

The  Narwhal,  or  unicorn,  has  one  of  its  upper  canines 
developed  into  a  straight,  spirally-twisted  pole  of  ivory,  seven 
to  ten  feet  long.J 

185. 


Phoccena  communis,  Common  Porpoise. 


Beluga  canadensis,  White  Whale. 


*  It  frequently  comes  to  the  surface  of  the  water  to  breathe,  where  it  tumbles  and 
frisks  about,  presenting  an  appearance  which  has  given  it  the  name  of  the 
Puffing  Pig. 

t  This  is  common  to  all  seas,  but  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  Dolphin  of 
sailors,  which  in  dying  displays  all  the  colors  of  the  rainbow— the  latter  being  the 
coryphSne,  a  true  scaly  fish. 

$  This  formidable  weapon  has  been  forced  through  the  sides  of  a  whale  ship.  It 
can  be  used  only  as  a  means  of  defence  or  of  ploughing  up  the  mud  for  food,  as  the 
animal  feeds  mainly  upon  soft  shell-fish. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  CETACEA.  85 

Fig.  136. 


Fig.  137. 


Montidon  monocZros,  Narwhal 

Balsenidae. — The  Greenland  Whale,  being  the  one  most 
sought  by  whalemen,  is  known  as  the  Eight  Whale.  Its 
huge  mouth  is  cleft  to  the  depth  of  twenty  feet,  with  a 
breadth  of  six  or  eight.*  The  upper  jaw,  instead  of 
teeth,  has  slabs  of  whalebone  (baleen)  hanging  freely,  about 
an  inch  apart.  These  are  often 
1800  in  number  and  the  longest 
ten  feet  in  length;  the  outer  edges 
being  smooth  and  solid,  the  inner 
fringed  with  fibres.  In  feeding, 
the  whale  moves  rapidly  forward 
near  the  surface  of  the  water,  not 
with  open  mouth,  but  with  its 
lower  lip  dropped  over,  leaving  the  baleen  exposed.  The 
water  rushes  in,  carrying  myriads  of  minute  animals.  The 
great  tongue  being  then  raised  and  the  lower  lip  lifted,  the 
water  is  strained  out  through  the  baleen,  and  discharged  at 
the  sides  of  the  mouth  in  torrents,f  while  the  food  remains, 
to  be  swallowed  at  leisure. 

*  Curiously,  the  throat  opening  out  of  this  enormous  cavity  will  hardly  admit  the 
entrance  of  the  two  fingers.  As  the  whale  has  no  teeth,  it  can  therefore  eat  only  very 
small  animals. 

t  Close  observers  maintain  that  the  whale  in  breathing  never  spouts  water  from 
the  nostrils  as  the  ordinary  pictures  represent.  When  it  rises  to  the  surface,  a  foot 
or  more  of  water  over  the  head  is  blown  away  by  the  breath  escaping  from  the  lungs. 
This  is  followed  by  the  vast  body  of  air  expelled,  surcharged  with  moisture  hot  from 


86 


SUBKIXGDOM    VERTEBKATA. 


Fig.  138. 


Balcena  rnystic'etus,  Right  Whale. 


The  veins  being  destitute  of  valves,  this  huge  animal 
bleeds  to  death  from  the  single  thrust  of  a  lance,  and  in  its 
last  struggles,  if  the  lungs  are  pierced,  blood  is  forced  out 
with  the  breath. 

The  whale  has  a  reserve  system  of  blood-vessels.  As  fast 
as  the  venous  blood  returns  and  flows  into  a  waste  reservoir, 
a  portion  of  the  extra  arterial  blood  passes  into  the  circula- 
tion, and  thus  it  can 
remain  under  water 
for  an  hour.  Being 
an  air-breathing  ani- 
mal, it  must  come 
quickly  to  the  sur- 
face; hence  its  tail* 
is  flattened  horizon- 
tally instead  of  verti- 
cally, that  a  rapid 
stroke  may  throw  up 
the  head.  Its  skin 
consists  of  interlaced  fibres,  among  which  the  fat  is  diffused 
to  the  depth,  in  some  instances,  of  two  feet,f  forming  the 
"blubber."  A  wise  Creator  adapted  this  thick,  non- 
conducting, India-rubber-like  coating  to  withstand  the 
tremendous  pressure  of  the  water  J  and  to  protect  the  body 
from  the  freezing  cold.  § 

To  keep  the  water  out  of  the  lungs  when  diving,  the  blow- 
holes are  provided  with  valves  that,  like  a  cork  in  a  bottle, 
close  more  firmly  the  greater  the  pressure  outside. 

the  lunge,  which,  cooling,  changes  to  vapor,  and  in  its  circling  descent  resembles  a 
shower  of  spray. 

*  The  tail  has  often  an  area  of  100  square  feet,  is  exceedingly  flexible,  and  so 
strong  that  the  whale  can  spring  clear  out  of  the  water  "  like  little  fish  leaping  into 
the  air  after  flies,"  falling  again  to  the  sea  with  a  crash  that  is  heard  for  miles. 

t  In  other  animals,  as  the  hog,  the  fat  lies  between  the  skin  and  the  muscles. 

\  The  whale  often  descends  to  the  depth  of  a  mile,  where,  according  to  Scoresby, 
the  pressure  upon  it  is  equal  to  200,000  tons,  and  wood  becomes  so  watersoaked  as 
not  to  rise  again. 

§  This  enormous  bulk  of  fat  is  lighter  than  the  water  and  gives  great  buoyancy, 
BO  that  the  dead  body  of  a  whale  floats  until  the  layer  of  blubber  is  u  flensed  off," 
when  it  sinks. 


CLASS    MAMMALS  !     ORDER    CHEIROPTERA. 


87 


Physeteridae. — The  Sperm  Whale  is  found  in  deep  water 
in  all  tropical  regions. 

T.   ,  i     T  '     ,   .  Fig.  139. 

It  has  no  baleen,  and  is 
distinguished  by  forty 
or  fifty  conical  teeth  in 
the  lower  jaw,  which  fit 
into  cavities  in  the  up- 
per ;  and  by  a  singular- 
ly-abrupt snout  with 
blow-holes  in  front.  An 
immense  cavity  in  the 
head  is  filled  with  cells 
containing  an  oil  which 
hardens  into  spermaceti.  Ambergris  is  found  in  the  intes- 
tines in  masses  of  thirty  or  forty  pounds.*  The  food  of  the 
Sperm  Whale  is  mainly  a  molluscan  animal  called  Squid.  To 
procure  this,  it  is  said  to  descend  into  the  water  with  its 
immense  lower  jaw  hanging  down  perpendicularly.  When 
a  sufficient  number,  attracted  by  the  glistening  color  of  the 
teeth,  are  collected  in  the  mouth,  the  treacherous  jaw  closes 
and  the  precious  morsels  are  swallowed. 


Skull  of  a  Sperm  Whale,  PhysZter  macrocephalus. 


ORDER     CHEIROPTERA. 

General  Characteristics.— The  Bats  are  true  flying 
mammals,  the  body  of  a  beast  being  adapted  to  the  life  of  a 
bird.  The  great  change  is  a  prolongation  of  the  fingers, 
to  sustain  a  semi-transparent  membrane  used  as  a  wing. 
The  thumb  is  left  free  and  armed  with  a  strong  claw,  en- 
abling the  bat  to  climb  walls  and  to  suspend  itself,  its 
favorite  position  when  at  rest.  Its  molars  bristle  with  points 
for  crushing  its  insect  food.  Its  flight  is  that  of  a  bird, 
though  fluttering  and  lacking  ease  of  movement.  On  the 
ground  it  can  only  drag  itself  along  by  its  hooked  thumb- 

*  This  substance  is  very  valuable,  as  it  has  the  property  of  strengthening  other 
perfumes.  It  is  thought  to  be  a  product  of  disease,  as  it  is  oftenest  found  in 
sickly-looking  whales. 


88 


STJBKINGDOM    VEBTEBRATA. 
Fig.  UO. 


Skeleton  of  a  Sat. 

nails.  During  the  day  it  hides  in  caves,  lofts,  etc.,  and  ven- 
tures out  only  with  the  twilight.  Its  eye  is  small  and  appar- 
ently of  little  service,  as  it  flits  among  bushes  and  intricate 

Fig.  1U1. 


Geoffrey's  nycteris,  Geoffrey's  Bat. 

passages  when  blinded.*  Associated  with  ideas  of  gloom,  it 
inspires  universal  dread,  yet  it  renders  great  service  by 
devouring  noxious  insects.  To  capture  these,  it  curves  for- 

*  This  has  led  some  Zoologists  to  think  that  it  has  a  sixth  sense.  It  is  probably 
due,  however,  to  its  extraordinary  delicacy  of  touch.— The  cry  of  a  bat  is  so  shrill 
that  many  persons'  ears  cannot  detect  it,  and  Homer  (Odyssey  24,  6)  compares  it  to 
the  cries  of  ghosts. — The  bat  is  frequently  infested  with  the  common  bed-bug  ( Cimex 
lectidarius),  and  this  fact  may  answer  the  question  of  the  despairing  housewife, 
"  Where  can  the  bugs  come  from  ?" 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  CHEIKOPTEKA. 


89 


ward  that  part  of  the  membrane  expanded  between  the  hind 
legs  and  tail,  to  serve  as  a  skim-net.  Its  flight  is  uncertain 
and  awkward,  as  ever  and  anon  it  dives  downward,  making 
complete  somersaults  in  its  effort  to  take  the  "  catch "  from 
the  net.  There  are  over  30  genera  and  200  species — 20  at 
least  being  indigenous  to  North  America.  The  families  of 
the  order  are  as  follows  : 

5  Phyllostomidse,  Vampire. 

I  Rhinolophidae,  Horse-shoe  Bat. 

J  Vespertilionidae,  Common  Bat. 

J  Noctiliouidae,  Hare-lipped  Bat. 

^  Pteropodidae,  Wing-footed  Bat. 

Phyllostomidae. — The   Vampire  of  South  America  has, 
instead  of  a  stomach,  a  long  pouch  for  the  reception  of  its 

Fig.  W. 


With      1    SIMPLE  ; 

FORK-FINGER 

.J 

TWO-JOINTED. 

^           nose      I 

£             leaf,       J    COMPLEX  ; 
D_ 

FORE-FINGER 
;    ONE-JOINTED. 

O    ' 

PROLONGED 

;     FORE-FINGER 

£       Without 

TAIL; 

1       ONE-JOINTED. 

UJ 

I            nose 

SHORT,  THICK 

'     FORE-FINGER 

U    [       leaf. 

TAIL; 

'.      TWO-JOINTED. 

.  TAILLESS  ; 

!  WITHOUT  THIGH 
MEMBRANE. 

Phyllost&ma  spectrum,  Vampire.    *. 

food,  which  requires  little  digestion.  Its  teeth  make  a  triple 
puncture,  through  which  it  sucks  the  blood  of  its  victim  till 
gorged.  The  bite,  however,  is  rarely  serious.* 

Bhinolophidse.— The  Horse-shoe  Bats  have  large  nose- 
appendages,  consisting  of  skin  curiously  folded,  perhaps  as 
an  extra  organ  of  touch.  The  Puff  Bat  diminishes  its  spe- 

*  Most  exaggerated  stories  Have  been  reported  by  travelers,  as  that  the  Vampire, 
winging  its  silent  flight  in  the  darkness,  poises  itself  over  the  exposed  toe  of  an 
incautious  sleeper,  and  painlessly  extracts  his  life-blood,  all  the  while  by  gentle  fan- 
ning inducing  a  deeper  slumber,  until  its  victim  expires. 


90 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBBATA. 


cific  gravity  by  blowing  air  beneath  the  cuticle  through 
openings  in  the  cheek-pouches  until  the  creature  looks  like 
"a  mere  ball  with  head  and  limbs  artificially  attached."  The 
Great-eared  Bat  has  ears  nearly  as  long  as  its  body,  folding 
them  up  when  it  sleeps.  Their  large  development  compen- 
sates for  the  smallness  of  the  eyes ; 
the  diminutive  size  of  which  has 
given  rise  to  the  saying  "  Blind  as  a 
bat." 

Fig.  lUt. 


Fig.  Ilt3. 


Afegaclermafrons,  Great-eared  bat. 


Vespertirw  subulatus,  Little  brown  bat. 


Fig.  Ik5. 


Yespertilionidae. — The  Common  Bats  are  found  in  every 
part  of  the  world.     The  Little  Brown  Bat  frequents  the 

haunts  of  man  and 
is  especially  service- 
able by  destroying 
mosquitoes,  while  it 
is  said  that  it  will 
devour  40  flies  at  a 
meal.  With  the 
failure  of  food  in 
the  fall,  it  hides 
away  to  hibernate, 
when  its  respiration 
sinks  from  200  to  30 
per  minute. 

Noctilionidae. — 
The     Koctilios     of 

Nocfilw  leporlnus.  Hare-lipped  bat.  South     America    are 

repulsive  from  their  cleft  upper  lip.  Some  have  the  hinder 
thumb  placed  at  a  distance  from  the  rest  of  the  toes  and  op- 
posable  to  them,  like  the  Quadrumana. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  INSECTIVORA.  91 

Fig.  1U6. 


Pter&pus  edulis,  Flying  Fox,  Java. 


Pteropodidae.— The  Wing-footed  Bats  are  adapted  to  a 
vegetable  diet.  There  are  no  points  on  their  molars,  and  the 
pyloric,  or  digestive  end  of  their  stomach,  is  lengthened  to 
correspond  to  their  fruit-eating  habits.  The  Flying  Fox— -so 
called  from  the  shape  of  its  head — is  no  larger  than  a  squir- 
rel, but  is  five  feet  across  the  wings.  It  receives  its  specific 
name  because  its  flesh  is  eaten.* 

ORDER     INSECTIVORA. 

General  Characteristics. —The  members  of  this  order 
are  insect-eating,  and  have  teeth  studded  with  points  for 
crushing  the  hard  integuments  of  their  prey.  They  are 
plantigrade,  with  a  tendency  to  an  underground  life.  Those 
inhabiting  cold  countries  hibernate,  as  their  food  fails  them 
during  the  winter. 

*  Hundreds  are  sometimes  found  suspended  by  their  hind  claws  to  the  limbs  of 
trees,  presenting  the  appearance  of  uncommonly  large  fruit.  If  killed,  they  still 
remain  hanging.  They  commit  great  depredations  on  orchards,  and  in  Java  the 
natives  protect  their  trees  by  bamboo  baskets. 


SUBKItfGDOM    VEBTEBKATA. 


INSECTI- 
VOROUS.  - 

BODY  COVERED 
WITH  HAIR. 

f  ARBOREAL. 
J  SUBTERRANEAN. 

I  TERRESTRIAL. 

Galeopithecidse. 
Talpida?, 

j  Sorecidae, 
(  Chrysochloridae, 

BODY  COVERED 
WITH  SPINES. 

•j  TERRESTRIAL. 

Erinaoeidae. 

Kabung. 
Mole. 

Shrew. 
Golden  Mole. 

Hedgehog. 


G-aleopithecidse.—  The  Ka~ 
lung*  has  a  bat-like  membrane 
clothed  with  hair,  serving  as  a 
parachute  to  support  it  in  a  de- 
scending leap  from  tree  to  tree, 
sometimes  for  100  yards.  It  is 
nocturnal  and  sleeps  suspended 
by  the  hind  legs. 

T  a  1  p  i  d  33 .  —  The  Moles  are 
adapted  to  a  subterranean  life  by 
having  small  eyes  hidden  in  the  fur,  though  capable  of  being 
brought  forward  for  use;  acute  hearing  and  smell;  velvet- 
like  fur  inserted  vertically,  so  as  to  lie  smoothly  in  any 

Fig.  IIS. 


GaleopitfiScus  volans, 
Cat-monkey.    ^. 


Skeleton  of  a  Mole. 

direction ;  shovel-shaped  paws,  with  sharp,  stout  nails  turned 
outwardly  for  throwing  the  earth  backward ;  and  cylindrical 
bodies  for  moving  rapidly  through  their  tunnels.  The  Com- 
mon Mole,  contrary  to  its  specific  name,  lives  upon  land, 
often,  in  its  pursuit  of  worms  and  insects,  burrowing  a 

*  The  Kabung  seems  to  be  a  transitional  animal,  linking  different  orders.  The 
generic  name,  meaning  cat-monkey,  indicates  this  peculiarity.  Its  membrane  allies 
it  to  the  Cheiroptera ;  its  teeth  to  the  Insectivora ;  and  its  cranium  and  reproductive 
organs  to  the  Quadrumana. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  IKSECTIVORA.  93 

Fig.  U9. 


Habitation  of  a  Mole. 

gallery  a  hundred  feet  long  in   a  single  night.     Strictly 

carnivorous,   it    is    ex- 

ceedingly  useful,  and 

should  be    protected   by 

every  cultivator    of    the 

soil.       The    Star-nosed 

Mole    burrows    in    moist 

places  to  form  chambers 

for  rearing  its  young.* 

Sorecidae.  —  The 
Shrew's  foot  is  not  formed 
for  digging,  indicating  its 

habit  of    living   above        Sc(dop8  <*«*<*"• Common  Mole-  *• 
ground.     It  has  a  long,  movable  snout,  and  bristly  tail.f 

Fig.  151. 


Sorex  thompsdni,  Thompson's  Shrew, 


*  This  species  is  frequently  found  in  mid-winter  with  its  tail  swollen  with  fat 
probably  to  be  absorbed  as  food  during  its  partial  hibernation. 

t  Cats  and  dogs  often  kill  them,  mistaking  them  for  mice ;  but  on  account  of 


SUBKINGDOM    VEETEBEATA. 
Fig.  152. 


Condylura  cristata,  Star-nosed  Mole. 


Chrysochloridae. — The  Golden  Mole  has  short  legs,  a 
chunky  body,  and  only  three  toes  on  the  fore  feet.  Its  fur 
shines  with  rich  metallic  tints  of  variable  hues. 

Fig.  153. 


.  15k. 


ChrysocMoris  aurfus,  Golden  Mole,  Africa.    *. 

Erinaceidse.— The  Hedgehog  is  not  found  in  America. 
Mingled  with  its  hair  are  prickly  spines  (quills)  pinned  through 

the  skin  from  the  inside, 
and  retained  by  the  head. 
They  are  so  bent  that  when 
the  animal  rolls  itself  into  a 
ball,  they  project  in  every 
direction — a  cheval-de- 
$E.  frise  which  baffles  the  dog 

Erinaceus  aurltm,  Long-eared  Hedgehog.  5V    an(J   ^he   fox%      Jf    a   pOO]   jg 

near,  however,  the  latter  will  sometimes  tumble  the  curled- 

their  disagreeable  odor  refuse  to  eat  them.  They  are  exceedingly  pugnacious,  and 
their  fierce  combats  would  be  fearful  were  they  not  ludicrous  from  the  diminutive 
size  of  the  creature. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  RODENTIA. 


95 


Mg.  155. 


Skull  of  a  Rodent. 


up  hedgehog  into  the  water ;  when  the  frightened  animal, 
unrolling  itself  for  an  instant,  will  be  caught  by  its  crafty 
enemy  before  it  can  close  up  again. 

ORDER     RODENTIA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Rodents  (gnawers)  lack 
canine  teeth,  but  have  two  upper  and  lower  incisors  fitted  to 
gnaw  bark,  roots,  woody  stems, 
nuts,  etc.  These  are  long,  slightly 
curved,  chisel-edged,  and  deeply 
rooted  in  the  jaw.  Friction  upon 
each  other  and  constant  growth  at 
the  base  keep  the  edges  sharp.* 
The  molars  are  generally  ridged 
transversely  and  the  lower  jaw 
moves  backward  and  forward  to 
aid  in  mastication.  Most  of  the  order  have  clavicles,  and 
hence  rotary  motion  of  the  fore  paws,  between  which  they 
hold  their  food  while  gnawing. 

I  Jaculidae,  Jumping  Mo  use. 

I  Muridae,  Mouse. 

>  Geomyidae,  Gopher. 
5  Castoridae,  Beaver. 
\  Sciuridae,  Squirrel. 

5  Hystricidae,  Porcupine. 
Caviidae,        Guinea  Pig. 

>  Leporidae,     Hare. 

Jaculidae. — Jumping  Mice  are  remarkable  for  their  cheek- 
pouches  and  long,  zigzag  leaps.  There  is  but  a  single  species 
in  North  America. 

*  If  one  of  the  incisors  be  broken  off,  its  opposite  continues  to  grow,  some- 
times curving,  in  which  case  at  length  it  locks  the  jaw,  and  the  wretched  animal 
starves  to  death. 


TAIL  LONG, 

THINLY  HAIRED. 

TAIL  VARYING, 

SCALY. 

TAIL  LONG, 

With 
clavicles  ; 

!     MOLAR  TEETH 
WITH  ROOTS  ; 

PARTIALLY  NAKED. 

TAIL  FLATTENED, 
SCALY. 

F 

TAIL  LONG, 

BUSHY. 

UJ     - 

0 
0 
cn 

TAIL  SHORT, 

BRISTLY. 

Without 
clavicles  ; 

}f        TAILLESS. 
MOLAR  TEETH 
WITHOUT  ROOTS  ;  j         TAIL  SHORT, 
FURRY. 

96 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBKATA. 
Fig.  156. 


Jaculus  hudsontus,  Jumping  Mouse.    §. 

Muridse. — The  Common  Rats  and  Mice  have  naked  tails; 
five  toes  on  the  hind  feet ;  and  four  on  the  front,  with  a  sort 
of  wart  representing  a  thumb.  The  Meadow  Mouse  is 
noticeable  for  the  winding,  shallow  paths  it  traces  among  the 

Fig.  157. 


Arvicola  riparia,  Meadow  Mouse.    f . 

grass  leading  to  its  nest.     The  Deer  Mouse  dwells  in  the 
woods  and  fields  in  summer,  and  in  granaries  in  winter. 

Fig.  158. 


The 


Hesperdmys  teutibpus,  Deer,  or  White-footed  Mouse. 


CLASS    MAMMALS  :     ORDER    RODE^TIA. 


97 


House  Mouse  and  the 
House  Rat  (If.  decu- 
mamis),  originally 
from  Central  Asia,  are 
now  found,  through 
transportation  by 
ships,  in  every  part  of 
the  world.*  The  rat's 
tail  is  prehensile  and 
can  be  used  as  a 
"hand,  a  balance,  or 
a  projecting  spring." 
The  Musk  Rat  lives 
on  the  river  bank  and 
in  the  water,  using 
its  vertically-flattened 
tail  for  sculling.  Its 
home  is  constructed 
of  reeds,  with  one 
entrance  above  and 
another  below  the 
surface  of  the 
water. 

G-eomyidae.— The 
Pouched  Gopher  is  so 
called  from  its  curious, 
hair-lined  cheek- 
pouches.  These  open  '. 
externally,  and  are  ( 
used  for  carrying  out 
sand  from  its  burrow 
and  for  taking  in 
food. 


Fig.  159. 


Hits  musc&lus,  Common  Mouse. 
Fig.  160. 


Fiber  zibet/ileus,  Musk  Rat. 
Fig.  161. 


G6&mys  bitrsanus,  Pouched  Gopher 


*  They  are  exceedingly  cleanly  and,  in  limited  numbers,  useful  for  their  scavenger 
work  and  destruction  of  insect  venmin.  When  food  fails  they  migrate  in  companies 
to  new  places.  In  such  journeys  they  often  travel  long  distances  and  cross  broad 
rivers.  They  take  with  them  the  old  and  infirm,  and  Dr.  Franklin  asserts  that  he 
once  saw  a  rat  leading  a  blind  comrade  by  a  twig  grasped  iu  its  mouth. 


98 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBEATA. 

Fig.  162. 


Castor  canadensis,  American  Beaver. 


Castoridae.  —  The  Beaver  was  once  abundant  in  North 
America,  but  it  retires  before  civilization,  and  is  fast  becom- 
ing extinct  in  this  country  as  in  Europe.  Its  scaly  tail  and 
webbed  hind  feet  enable  it  to  swim  with  great  ease.  The 
enamel  of  its  incisors  is  very  hard.*  It  is  noted  for  its  inge- 
nuity in  building  its  habitations.! 

*  The  Indians,  before  the  introduction  of  iron  among  them,  were  accustomed  to 
use  these  as  chisels  for  working  wood  and  horn.  A  tame  heaver  will  take  an  apple 
in  its  forepaws,  and,  by  desirously  turning  and  pressing  it  against  its  incisors,  paro 
it  as  readily  as  if  the  work  had  been  done  with  a  knife.  —  (  Wood.) 

|  If  the  place  chosen  is  by  stagnant  water,  the  beaver  at  once  commences  build- 
ing on  the  bank,  with  lower  entrances  from  the  water  ;  but,  if  it  is  a  running  stream, 
a  large  company  combine  to  build  a  dam  in  order  to  keep  the  water  at  the  same 
level.  Going  up  stream  they  gnaw  off  trees  one  to  ten  or  more  inches  in  diameter. 
These  they  float  down  to  the  spot  selected,  and,  laying  them  crosswise,  fill  in  the 
interstices  with  mud  and  stone,  which  they  carry  between  their  forepaws  and  chin. 
When  the  water  is  high  enough  to  prevent  freezing  to  the  bottom  in  winter,  they 
separate  into  small  families,  and  build  their  houses  against  the  dam  or  the  adjoining 
bank.  The  entrance  is  beneath  the  water,  and  the  vaulted  roof  is  well  plastered  with 
a  thick  coat  of  earth,  to  protect  against  the  Wolverine.  When  they  dive  they  always 
slap  with  their  tail,  and  also  when  upon  the  tops  of  their  houses  inspecting  them,  or 
about  their  work.  This  has  given  rise  to  the  absurd  idea  of  their  using  it  for  a 
ti-owel  to  plaster  their  buildings,  and  as  a  hod  to  carry  the  mortar  they  are  said  to 
prepare.—  They  lay  up  food  for  winter  by  sinking  logs  and  bark  near  their  houses; 
but  in  summer  feed  upon  fjrass,  fruits  and  roots. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  RODEKTIA. 


99 


Fig.  163. 


Sciuridse. — The  Squirrels  have  clavicles,  and  hence 
their  fore  feet  as  hands. 
Their  bushy  tail  aids 
them  in  leaping,  the 
hairs  spreading  out  and 
breaking  their  fall.  They 
provide  for  winter  by 
hiding  nuts,  which  they 
skillfully  cut  from  the 
stock.  In  the  coldest 
weather  they  remain  in 
their  nests  in  a  semi- 
torpid  state,  but  with 
the  first  mild  day  are 
gamboling  among  the 
trees  or  skipping  along 
the  fences. 

The  Southern  Fox 
Squirrel  has  the  ears  and 
nose  white,  the  Western 
dark  or  black ;  while  the 
body  is  gray,  black,  mot- 
tled, russet,  or  orange. 
The  Gray  Squirrel  is  the  1 
most  abundant  in  New 
England  and  the  Middle 
States,  the  black  variety 
prevailing  in  Western 
New  York.*  The  Flying 
Squirrel  has  an  extension 

*  Congregating  in  great  num- 
bers, they  venture  into  unknown 
regions  in  an  undeviating  course, 
swimming  broad  rivers  (not  spil- 
ing over  on  a  piece  of  bark  as 
fabulously  related),  sweeping 
through  fields  and  forests,  till,. the 
imperious  but  inscrutable  instinct 
satisfied,  they  scatter  and  find  Sciurus  caroliiwnsis, 

homes.  Gray  Squirrel        Black  variety  of  Gray. 


use 


Sciurus  vuljnnus,  Southern  Fox  Squirrel. 


100 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 

Fig.  165. 


Pteromys  wlucdla,  Flying  Squirrel.    \. 

of  the  skin  of  the  flank  between  the  fore  and  the  hind  legs, 
which,  with  the  flattened  tail,  forms  a  parachute  to  sustain 
it  in  leaping  from  tree  to  tree.*  There  is  probably  but  one 
species  in  North  America,  differing  in  color  and  size  accord- 
ing to  locality.  The  Chipmunk,  or  Striped  Squirrel,  has 
cheek-pouches  opening  internally  outside  the  teeth,  capable 

Fig.  166.  Fig.  167. 


Tam/ias  siriatw,  Chipmunk,    j. 


SpermopJ&lus  tridtcem  lineatus, 
Striped  Prairie  Squirrel.t    ?. 


*  It  is  not  flight,  since  the  squirrel  cannot  propel  itself  in  the  air,  nor  even  sus- 
tain itself  at  the  same  height.  The  first  impulse  being  given  by  its  powerful  hind 
legs,  it  descends  obliquely,  and  just  before  reaching  the  point  aimed  at,  by  an  upward 
movement  of  the  tail  and  the  impetus  of  its  velocity,  ascends  a  short  distance,  and 
thus  alights  flat  upon  its  four  feet. 

t  In  Iowa,  Minn.,  Wis.,  and  northern  Til.,  this  squirrel  is  popularly  known  as  the 
Oopher.  The  true  animal  of  this  name  is  given  on  p.  97.  The  former  is  sometimes 
destructive  to  crops  in  new  districts,  but  a  few  pails  of  water  will  drive  it  out  of  its 
shallow  burrow  :  while  it  fully  recompenses  all  its  damage  by  destroying  mice  and 
noxious  insects. 


CLASS    MAMMALS:     ORDER    RODENTIA. 


101 


Cynbmys  ludovicianus, 
Prairie  Dog.    fc. 


of  carrying  away  four  or  five  large  acorns  at  a  time.    The ' 
Striped  Prairie  Squirrel  is  beau-        *      „•';_;.    ;  t»  / '  i  »  /  »",  i 

z  *  '    .JZtC,   l&i.     >  .  '   ?    >    ?    •> J 

tifully  marked  by  thirteen  stripes 

on   a  ground  of  reddish-brown. 

It  is  a  western  burrowing  species. 

The  Prairie  Dog  is  found  on  the 

prairies  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

It  has  a  short,  puppy-like  yelp, 

accompanied  with  a  quick  jerk  of 

the  tail.     It  digs  a  burrow,  de- 
scending at  an  angle   of   forty 

degrees,  and  having  a  bed  of  dried 

grass  at    the   end.*     These  are 

often  placed  close  together,  form- 
ing   a   dog-town    reaching   for 

miles.    The  animal  has  a  curious 

habit  of  standing  erect  on  the 

little  mound  at  the  mouth  of  its  hole,  watching  intently,  and 

at  the  first  alarm  tumbling  down  into  its  burrow. 
Hystricidae.— The  Porcupine  of  North  America  has  its 

back,  sides,  and  tail  covered  with  spines  three  to  five  inches 

long.  These  are  barbed  with 
numerous  reversed  hooks  or 
prickles,  which  are  easily  de- 
tached, and,  once  embedded  in 
the  flesh,  work  deeper  and 

deePer-t 

Caviidse.— The  Guinea  Pig, 
originally  from  South  America, 
|s  domesticated  in  all  parts  of 

the  world.    Though  exceedingly  quarrelsome  with  its  fellows, 

it  is  gentle  toward  other  animals. 

*  Rattlesnakes  and  burrowing  owls  are  often  found  sharing  its  home,  being 
tolerated  by  the  rightful  owner  from  necessity. 

t  None  of  the  species  can  throw  their  quills,  though  all  can  erect  them  by  means 
of  powerful  subcutaneous  muscles.  When  attacked  the  Porcupine,  like  the  Hedge- 
hog, rolls  itself  partially  into  a  ball,  and,  brandishing  its  tail,  stands  ready  for  the 
onsl'inght.  The  assailant,  with  nose,  lips,  jaws,  and  tongue  filled  with  the  treacher- 
ous barbs,  soon  retreats  with  a  howl  of  pain. 


102 


gUJBKIXGEOU    VERTEEITATA. 


Leporidae.— The 
Hares  are  distinguished 
by  two  small  teeth  behind 
the  chisel-like  upper  in- 
cisors. Flight  being  their 
only  means  of  escape, 
their  ears  are  peculiarly 
adapted  to  catch  the 
faintest  rustle  and  their 
eyes  to  look  easily  in 
every  direction.  When 
alarmed,  they  stamp  with 
their  feet,  as  if  to  give 
notice  of  danger;  and, 
with  seeming  consciousness  of  their  mimicry,  often  merely 
squat  behind  a  clod,  and,  suffering  their  pursuers  to  run  over 
them,  quickly  start  off  in  a  contrary  direction.  They  gen- 
erally lie  concealed  during  the  day,  and  venture  forth  only 
at  night,  seeking  their  food  of  grass,  roots  and  tender  buds. 
In  Europe  they  are  hunted  with  dogs,  the  greyhound  being 
kept  almost  exclusively  for  their  pursuit. 

The  Northern  Hare  has  in  summer  a  tint  of  reddish- 
brown,  and  in  winter  an  impure  white.    It  never  burrows, 

Fig.  171. 


Cavla  cobaia,  Guinea  Pig. 


^     ,^-rstei 

Lepus  sylvaficus,  Gray  Rabbit.* 


but  makes  a  "form"  of  grass, 
etc.,  in  which   it  crouches,   its 

Lepus  americanus,  Northern  Hare.  TV  i    *j       i  '.LIT  i 

'    ears    laid    along  its  back,    and 
trusting  to   its   mimicry   for  concealment.     It  is   a  timid 


*  This  animal,  the  smallest  of  the  hares,  is  misnamed  in  this  country,  as  there  is 
no  rabbit  indigenous  to  America. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    OKDER  RODENTIA.  103 

creature,  loving  the  recesses  of  the  thickest  woods.  It  runs 
with  great  speed,  and  has  been  known  to  clear  over  twenty 
feet  at  a  single  bound.  It  is  very  fierce,  however,  and  when 
overtaken  will  scratch  and  bite  severely.  The  Gray  Rabbit 

Mg.  173. 


Lepus  calldtis,  Jackass  Eabbit  or  Hare.    T'5. 

does  not  change  its  fur  in  the  winter  to  so  decided  a  white  as 
the  Northern  Hare,  or  White  Rabbit,  as  it  is  often  called. 
Never  making  burrows  itself,  when  pursued  it  will  take 
refuge  in  those  of  other  animals.  The  Lepus  callotis  of 
Texas  and  Mexico  is  remarkable  only  for  its  big  ears. 


10-i  SUBKIKGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


ORDER     EDENTATA. 

General  Characteristics.— The  Edentates  (toothless) 
are  related  only  negatively  by  being  destitute  of  incisors. 
Different  members  of  the  order  being  herbivorous,  insectivor- 
ous, carnivorous,  as  well  as  omnivorous,  no  tabulation  is 
given. 

Myrmecophagidse.  —  The  Giant  Ant-eater  of  South 
America  has  toothless  jaws  a  foot  long.  It  can  open  its 

Fig.  17k. 


Myrmecophdga  jubata,  Giant  Ant-eater. 

mouth,  however,  only  far  enough  to  thrust  forth  its  long, 
worm-like  tongue.*  This  is  covered  by  a  viscid  saliva,  and 
can  be  darted  hither  and  thither  with  lightning-like  rapidity. 
With  its  fore  feet,  armed  with  powerful  nails,  it  tears  open  an 
ant-hill,  when  the  bewildered  inmates  rush  out,  and,  stick- 
ing to  its  tongue,  are  rapidly  swept  into  its  mouth.  When 
sleeping,  it  wraps  itself  in  its  large,  bushy  tail,  presenting 
the  appearance  of  a  heap  of  dried  grass,  and  thus  escapes  the 
notice  of  if  s  enemies.  Attacked,  it  rises,  bear-like,  upon  its 
hind  feet  and  clasps  its  enemy,  its  strong  claws  being  a  match 
for  the  Jaguar.  It  is,  however,  quite  inoffensive,  and  rarely 
uses  its  great  strength,  even  in  its  own  defence. 

*  Though  the  animal  is  only  four  or  five  feet  long,  it  is  said  that  the  thread-like 
tongue  can  be  thrust  out  to  a  distance  of  two  feet  and  as  often  as  twice  per 
second 


CLASS    MAMMALS  I     ORDER    EDENTATA. 


105 


Fig.  175. 


Mg.  17& 


Bradypodidse. — The  Sloth,*  of  which  there  are  two 
varieties — the  two-toed 
and  three-toed — is  also 
peculiar  to  South  Amer- 
ica. The  latter  species, 
called  the  Ai,  from 
its  cry,  lives  on  the 
under  side  of  the 
branches  of  trees,  even 
sleeping  suspended 
back  downward.  Cling- 
in  o-  to  a  limb  with  its  Bradfous  tndactylus,  Ai  or  Three-toed  Sloth.  &. 

o 

short  hind  legs,  it  draws  in  other  boughs  with  its  long  fore 

legs,  in  order  to 
strip  off  the 
leaves  for  food. 
Dasypocli- 
dae.— The  Ar- 
madillos were  so 
called  by  the 
Spaniards  from 
their  "  coat  of 
mail."  This 
bony  armor  con- 
sists of  aggluti- 
nated hairs. 
The  middle  is 
divided  into 
bands,  to  give 
freedom  of  mo- 
tion. The  ani- 
mal's snout  is 

Dasi/pus  novemcinctus,  Nine-banded  Armadillo.    £. 

*  Cuvier  said  of  this  family,  "  Nature  seems  to  have  amused  herself  in  producing 
something  imperfect  and  grotesque."  Their  fore  legs  are  eo  much  larger  than  their 
hind  ones  that  when  they  try  to  walk  on  the  ground  they  have  to  drag  themselves 
along  on  their  knees,  and  they  seem  awkward  enough ;  but  when  moving  on  the 
forest  trees  they  are  seen  to  be  in  harmony  with  their  intended  life.  In  avoiding 
pursuit  they  spring  from  tree  to  tree  with  great  rapidity,  particularly  in  a  gale  of 


10G 


SUBKIXGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


liy.  177. 


pointed,  for  digging  in  search  of  roots  and  worms,  and  for 

hiding  from  its  enemies.* 

The  Nine-banded  Armadillo  abounds  in  Central  America, 

and  is  domesticated  to  clear  the 
houses  of  ants.  The  Mataco,  or 
Three-banded  Armadillo,  does 
not  burrow,  but  for  defence  rolls 
itself  into  a  ball.  The  Picliicia- 
go  resembles  the  mole  in  its 
habits.  Its  short  tail,  flattened 
at  the  end  and  bent  under  the 
body,  serves  to  throw  the  earth 
backward  when  burro  wing,  f 


Dasfipus  tricinctus, 
Three-banded  Armadillo. 


ffig.  178. 


,  Pichiciago.    J. 


wind  when  the  branches  are  swaying  toward  one  another.  Their  flesh  is  good  eating 
and  they  need  all  their  agility  to  escape  their  numerous  enemies. 

*  Its  legs  are  very  strong,  and  Wood  relates  that  he  has  seen  an  Armadillo  run- 
ning around  with  ease  carrying  three  monkeys  who  had  chosen  to  take  a  ride.  When 
caught,  though  so  small,  it  will  kick  with  great  effect.  Some  varieties  will  burrow 
HO  fast  that  it  is  said  the  animal  will  sink  out  of  sight  before  a  man  on  horseback 
seeing  one  can  dismount  and  catch  it.  In  Paraguay  the  natives  detect  the  presence 
of  an  Armadillo  in  its  hole  by  thrusting  down  a  stick,  when,  if  it  is  there,  a  swarm 
of  mosquitoes  will  fly  buzzing  out. 

t  The  Armadillos  are  the  true  scavengers  of  the  plains,  speedily  devouring  the 
carcasses  of  wild  animals,  and  especially  of  such  as  have  been  slaughtered  merely  for 
their  hides. 


CLASS  MAMMALS:    ORDER  MARSUPIALIA. 


107 


ORDER     MARSUPIALIA. 


Fig.  179. 


General  Characteristics. — The  Marsupials  (pouched) 
are  not  over  an  inch  long 
at  birth,  but  are  immediately 
transferred  to  a  pocket  formed  by 
the  skin  of  the  mother's  abdomen. 
Nourished  by  milk,  they  remain 
there,  as  in  a  living  cradle,  till 
able  to  take  care  of  themselves. 
Except  a  single  Family,  they  be- 
long to  Australia  and  adjacent 
islands. 

Macropodidae.— The  Kanga- 
roos are  noted  for  their  small  fore 
limbs  and  large  hind  ones.  The 
latter  with  the  powerful  tail 
form  a  tripod  to  sustain  the  ani- 
mal when  sitting ;  but  when  feed- 
ing, it  goes  upon  all  fours,  and 
the  young  often  protrude  their 
heads  from  the  abdominal  pouch  and  crop  the  herbage  at 
the  same  time  with  the  mother.  When  alarmed,  the  Kanga- 
roo bounds  off  twenty 
feet  at  a  leap.*  Its 
eyes  are  large  and  have 
a  peculiar  gazelle-like 
'  expression  in  strange 
jp]  contrast  to  that  of  its 
|  gleaming  white  teeth. 
J  The  different  species 
vary  in  height  from 
that  of  a  rabbit  to  that 


Diddphys  mrginiana,  Opossum. 


*  It  is  eagerly  hunted  for  its  flesh  and  skin?  When  brought  to  hay  hy  the  hounds 
it  seizes  them  with  its  fore  limbs  and  endeavors  either  to  drown  them,  if  water  be  at 
hand,  or  to  lay  them  open  with  its  hind  claw. 


Fig.  180. 


108  SUBIUNGDOM    VERTEBKATA. 

Didelphidse.— The  Opossum  belongs  to  this  Continent, 
but  of  the  thirty  species,  only  one  is  found  in  North  Amer- 
ica. The  common  variety  is  about  the  size  of  a  cat,  with  a 
pointed  head ;  large,  naked  ears  ;  sharp  teeth  ;  rough  tongue ; 
long,  prehensile  tail ;  and  curved  claws.*  It  is  mostly  noc- 
turnal and  arboreal,  and  both  herbivorous  and  carnivorous. 


ORDER    MONOTREMATA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Monotremes,  found 
only  in  Australia  and  vicinity,  form  a  connecting  link 
between  the  Mammals  and  Birds. 

The  Porcupine  Ant-eater  has  a  nearly  cylindrical  beak 
covered  with  skin,  except  at  the  end,  where  there  is  a  small 

Fig.  181. 


Echidna  hystrix^  Porcupine  Ant-eater.    |. 

opening  for  its  long,  flexible  tongue.  It  has  no  teeth,  and 
feeds  on  insects.  Its  body  is  covered  with  hair  and  spines. 
When  surprised,  it  rolls  itself  into  a  ball,  or  burrows  flatwise 
into  the  earth  with  surprising  rapidity. 

*  Hunting  the  animal  is  a  favorite  sport  in  some  of  the  Southern  States.  In  the 
bright  moonlight  evenings  of  the  autumn,  parties  go  out  for  this  purpose  with  dogs. 
The  opossum  soon  hides  in  the  thick  branches  of  a  tree ;  but,  when  shaken  down,  rolls 
into  a  hall  and  feigns  itself  dead ;  after  a  few  moments  it  slowly  opens  one  eye, 
then  the  other,  and  if  unhindered  sneaks  away.  The  young  weigh  only  about  four 
grains  when  put  in  the  pouch,  and  are  blind  and  deaf.  Within  a  week  Iheir  tails 
become  prehensile  enough  to  twine  around  one  another's  bodies.  In  five  weeks  they 
are  able  to  crawl  out  and  are  sometimes  found  on  the  back  of  the  mother,  with  their 
tails  grasping  hers,  which,  in  turn,  is  twisted  about  a  branch. 


CLASS    MAMMALS  :     ORDER    MONOTREMATA.  109 

The  Water  Mole  *  caps  the  climax  of  the  eccentric  Aus- 
tralian Zoology.  The  bill  of  a  duck  is  attached  to  the  body 
of  an  otter;  while  on  each  side  of  either  mandible  is  a 
tooth  without  roots.  In  the  sides  of  the  mouth  are  capacious 
cheek-pouches.  The  fore  feet  have  a  web  extending  beyond 
their  extremities,  which  can  be  folded  up  when  the  feet  are 
used  for  burrowing,  or  expanded  when  employed  in  swim- 
ming. The  hind  feet  are  webbed  only  to  the  base  of  the 
nails.  The  body  is  covered  with  fur,  beneath  which  is  a 
layer  of  soft  wadding,  impervious  to  water.  Its  burrow  runs 
underground  forty  or  fifty  feet,  with  one  entrance  under 

,  Fig.  182. 


Ornitkorhynchus  paradoxus,  Water  Mole. 


water,  and  another  just  above.  At  the  further  end  is  a  nest 
of  grass  for  the  rearing  of  its  young,  which  are  born  and 
nourished  like  those  of  other  mammals.  It  swims  upon  the 
surface,  diving  continually,  and  also,  like  the  duck,  thrusting 
its  beak  into  the  mud  for  food.  So  far  as  present  discoveries 
indicate,  it  stands  at  the  extreme  of  the  mammals. 

*  See  "Fourteen  Weeks  in  Geology,"  p.  173. 


110 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBKATA. 


Fig.  183. 


CLASS  II.      AVES. 

General  Characteristics.— Birds  are  marked  by  being 
clothed  with  feathers.  The  modifications  in  the  skeleton  of 
a  mammal  necessary  to  adapt  it  for  flight  are  very  few,  and 
are  mainly  those  pertaining  to  the  fore  limbs  and  the  breast- 
bone. The  latter  (g)  is  greatly  enlarged  to  furnish  support 
to  the  powerful  muscles*  which  move  the  wings;  and  the 

former  have  the  bones  below 
the  elbow  (?)  more  or  less 
consolidated  to  give  them  a 
firm  stroke  against  the  air. 
The  hand  contains,  in  most 
species,  three  fingers.  The 
clavicles  (j)  are  generally 
united  at  one  end,  forming 
the  "wish-bone."  To 
strengthen  the  body  the  lum- 
bar and  sacral  vertebrae  are 
joined  to  the  hip-bones  (r), 
the  dorsal  are  more  or  less 
united,  and  the  ribs  are  ossi- 
fied throughout,  with  each  a 
process  (/)  lapping  upon  the 
adjoining  rib.  The  inner  toe  or  thumb  has  two  phalangeal 
bones  ;  the  next,  three  ;  the  middle,  four  ;  and  the  last,  five. 
The  number  of  cervical  vertebra)  (b)  varies  from  nine  to 
twenty-three ;  and  the  upper  one  articulates  with  the  skull 
by  only  one  process,  thus  aiding  in  that  variety  of  motion  so 
essential  in  the  act  of  "  preening." 

The  bones  are  light.  This  is  owing  to  their  being  com- 
posed largely  of  phosphate  of  lime,  and  the  marrow  in  many 
of  them  being  replaced  by  air.  Singularly,  at  one  stage  they 
are  solid,  like  those  of  all  Vertebrates,  but  the  bony  tissue  is 
afterward  absorbed.  "The  thinnest- walled  and  widest  air- 


Skdeton  of  a  Bird. 


The  pectoral  muscles  form  the  great  part  of  the  so-called  "  breast "  of  a  fowl. 


CLASS    AVES. 


Ill 


bone  of  the  bird  of  flight,"  says  Owen,  "  was  first  solid,  next 
a  marrow-bone,  and  finally  became  the  case  of  an  air-cell." 

The  Plumage  is  a  model  of  adaptation.  The  quills  are 
hollow,  and  like  the  bones,  filled  with  air.  They  are  compos- 
ed of  the  same  substance,  chemically,  as  the  hair  of  mammals 
and  the  scales  of  fishes.  The  delicate  filaments  of  a  feathei 
are  covered  with  grasping  barbs  of  a  microscopic  fineness. 
The  under  side  of  a  feather  is  concave,  to  resist  an  upward 

rig.  m. 


PLTTMAGE  OF  A  BIRD.—!,  crown ;  3,  forehead ;  S,  nostrils  ;  U,  upper  mandible :  5,  fowzr 
do. ;  6,  throat ;  7,  neck ;  8,  spurious  quills ;  9,  occiput ;  10,  ear  ;  11,  nape ;  is, 
breast ;  13,  middle  coverts;  1U,  large  do. ;  15,  belly  ;  16,  tibia ;  17,  tarsus ;  18,  inner 
toe ;  10,  ndddle  do. ;  %0,  outer  do. ;  21,  thumb;  88,  under  tail-coverts  ;  23,  tail;  24. 
primaries ;  25,  secondaries  ;  26,  tertiaries. 

pressure.  On  the  tail  is  a  gland  containing  oil,  with  which 
the  bird  lubricates  its  plumage  and  makes  it  waterproof.  The 
whole  plumage  is  renewed  (molted)  once  or  twice  a  year. 

The  Wing  has  a  motion  somewhat  like  the  stroke  of  an 
oar ;  it  strikes  the  air  with  the  broad  side,  but,  in  returning, 
presents  only  the  sharp  edge.  The  flight  of  a  bird  offers 


112  SUBKINGDOM    VEBTEBRATA. 

a  curious  problem.  It  is  supposed  that  the  upward  pressure 
of  the  air  caught  in  the  saucer-like  hollow  of  the  wing  can- 
not bend  the  inflexible  bone  and  muscles  of  the  front  margin, 
but  curves  the  ends  of  the  elastic  quills  upward,  pushing 
them  forward,  and  so  rorcing  the  bird  ahead. 

Respiration  takes  place  not  only  in  the  lungs,  but  also  in 
the  substance  of  the  other  organs ;  the  air  penetrating  into 
the  interior  of  the  bones  and  feathers,  sometimes  even  to  the 
toes.  So  complete  is  this  second  process  that  it  is  said  a 
bird  will  breathe  through  the  end  of  a  broken  bone  when  the 
windpipe  is  tied. 

Hatching  birds'  eggs  requires  a  varying  length  of  time, 
according  to  the  species.  The  temperature  needed  is  104° 
Fahr.  The  chick  first  pierces  its  shell  by  a  pegging  motion 
of  the  hardened  point  of  the  under  mandible,  and  then 
enlarges  the  aperture  by  pressing  with  the  knob-like*  end  of 
the  upper  mandible.  Finally,  by  turning  from  left  to  right, 
it  breaks  the  shell  about  half  around,  when  a  vigorous  stretch 
of  the  body,  assisted  by  bracing  with  the  feet,  parts  the  shell 
transversely  and  the  young  bird  is  liberated. f 

The  class  of  birds  is  divided  into  orders  as  follows  :J 

*  This  falls  off  soon  after  the  chick  emerges  from  its  shell,  as  Nature  abhors  a 
useless  appendage. 

t  Sometimes  the  fracture  extends  entirely  around  the  egg,  and  the  two  portions 
are  completely  separated  from  each  other.  But  if  the  inner  membrane  of  the  shell  be 
not  wholly  divided,  the  connecting  portion  serves  as  a  hinge,  and  the  two  parts  of 
the  shell  may,  in  the  movements  of  the  young  bird,  become  set,  like  two  cups,  one 
within  the  other. 

$  The  classification  of  Birds  is  unsettled.  Ornithologists  have  not  as  yet  agreed 
even  upon  the  number  of  orders.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  establish  an  ordinal 
system.  Thus  the  form  of  the  bill  has  been  made  a  b-isis  of  separating  the  almost 
interminable  series  of  Passerine  birds  into  Conirostres^  with  stout,  conical  bill; 
Dentirostres,  with  a  toothed  and  usually  more  or  less  hooked  tip ;  Tenuirostres,  with  an 
elongated  and  awl-shaped  bill ;  and  Fissiroslres,  with  a  depressed,  wide-gaped  bilL 
These  distinctions  have  proved  unreliable  and  are  generally  discarded.  In  such 
uncertainty  the  classification  here  adopted  is  essentially  that  of  Lilljeborg  in  "  A 
History  of  North  American  Birds,"  by  Baird,  Brewer,  and  Ridgway.  It  is,  however, 
considered  only  provisional.  The  fifteen  orders  given  in  the  table  have  been  sub- 
divided by  recent  authorities  into  over  one  hundred  families,  several  hundred  genera, 
and  at  least  ten  thousand  species.  The  limits  of  this  book  will  permit  the  descrip- 
tion of  only  one  or  two  species  typical  of  each  family  selected,  American  examples 
being  generally  chosen. 


CLASS    AVE8. 


113 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    BIRDS. 


00 


not  elevated 

NOT  EXCEEDING  HALF  THE  LENGTH  OF  THE  1 

above  the 

SECONDARY  QUILLS.      CLAW  OF  THE  POS- 

I. PASSERES. 

bstS6   of   tll6 

TERIOR   TOE     NOT    SMALLER     THAN    THE 

Thrush,  etc. 

CTAW  OF  THE  ANTERIOR  MIDDLE  ONE.          J 

anterior 

toes;  the 

two  anterior  and  two  pos-  ^ 

3 

£ 

entire 
posterior 
toe 

terior,  or   three   anterior 
and  one  posterior,  with  the 
outer  anterior  versatile. 

2.    PlCARIvE. 

Woodpecker,  etc. 

03 

insistent, 

EXCEEDING 

two  anterior  and  two  pos-  ] 

•        3.  PSITTACI. 

•+-•     3 

rarely 

HALF  THE 

terior,  outer  not  versatile,  j 

Parrot,  etc. 

^O  "5 

obsolete. 

LENGTH  OF 

r~f 

Coverts  of 

SECOND-      •< 
ARY 

•  covered  with  a  • 
cere  at  the  base 

i_  ® 

secondaries 

QUILLS. 

and  with  the 

4.  RAPTORES. 

|J 

of  first  series 

TOES 

point  of  the 

Falcon,  etc. 

o   SJ   - 

three 

upper  mandible 

-a 

anterior 

hooked.         ^ 

_c  -~ 

and  one  •< 

•^  ^ 

posterior. 

without  cere  or  • 

(0     O 

L      Bill 

hook.   Generally 

—      OT 

naked  at  base, 

5.  COLUMB^E. 

^  m 

or  with  large, 

Dove,  etc. 

%!T 

>  LU 

swollen  skin 

| 

(0 

• 

above  nostrils.    , 

£ 

•FEATHERED;    POSTERIOR  TOE   RARELY 

6.  GALLING. 

-o 

c 

ABSENT. 

Turkey,  etc. 

a 

elevated 

a 
Ira 

t£s 

3 

above  base 
of  anterior 
toes. 
Inferior 

NAKED  ; 
POSTERIOR 
TOE 

SOMETIMES 

without  cr 
with 

j 

long,  and        ' 
usually  flexible    ' 
and  sensitive.     \ 

7.  BREVIPENNES. 
Ostrich,  etc. 

8.  LIMICOL.E. 
Plover,  etc. 

o 
o 

part  of  crus 

WANTING. 

STERNUM 

crest.     • 
Bill 

long,  stout,  and 
•inflexible.        < 

9.  HERODIONES. 
Iloron,  etc. 

1 

short  usually. 

•10.  ALECTORIDES. 
Rail,  etc. 

o 

Q. 
Q_ 

ID 

J  = 

'  lamellate 

! 

11.  LAMELLIROS- 
TRES.    Duck,  etc. 

i 

"w  CD 

S 

CONNECTED    BY    MEMBRANE    WITH    INNER    ( 

12.  STEGANOPO- 

Jfm 

~     <D 

TOE  AND  NEARLY  LEVEL  WITH  OTHERS.        I 

'  DBS.    Pelican,  etc. 

II 

f     long,  passing   ^ 

^     <O 
Q. 

IS- 

-°i£ 

a 

c. 

without 
lamellae.    H 
Hinder  toe 

available 
for  flight,  " 

bei/oitd  base  of 
tail.     Legs  at 
centre  of 
equilibrium. 

short,  when      ' 

13.  LONGIPENNES. 

Gull,  etc. 

21 

FREE  OR 
ABSENT,      i 

closed  scarcely 
reaching  the 

14.  PYGOPODES. 
Loon,  etc. 

flT 

WT  v  n  Q 

tail.     Legs 

iJ 

posterior. 

•»-'   M— 

15.  SPHENISCI. 

c 

Penguin,  etc. 

114 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


Fig.  185. 


ORDER     PASSERES. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Passeres  (sparrows)  al- 
ways have  the  four  toes  on  nearly  the  same  level,  with  the 
hind  one  exactly  opposite  the  others,  giving  great  facility  in 
perching.*  They  excel  in  vivacity  and  song. 

Turdidae. — The  Thrushes  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
world.  The  bird  organization  reaches  in  them  its  highest 
development,  especially  in  the  complex  vocal  apparatus  of 

certain  species. 

The  Robin  \  alone  of  its 
family  seems  to  court  the 
society  of  man,  following 
close  upon  the  plough  and 
spade  and  often  nesting 
in  a  corner  of  the  piazza. 
It  is  a  ground  bird,  sel- 
dom picking  worms  from 
a  tree,  and  never  catching 
Turdus  migratorius,  Robin,  j.  them  as  they  danglo  in 

*  They  are  therefore  known  also  as  Insessores  or  Perchers.— Some  authors  have 
subdivided  this  order  into  Oscines,  songsters,  and  Clamatores,  screamers.  Amid  such 
diversity  any  tabulation  into  families  would  be  unsatisfactory. 

t  The  following  is  taken  from  Baird,  Brewer  and  Ridgway  as  a  specimen  of  what 
every  thorough  teacher  will  require 
from  each  of  his  pupils  in  writing, 
with  simple  sketches  attached,  for 
every  bird  that  can  be  obtained  in 
the  immediate  vicinity ;— "  TUR- 
DUS MIG3A.TORIUS,  Robin,  Ameri- 
can Redbreast.  Tail  slightly 
rounded  ;  above  olive-gray ;  top 
and  sides  of  the  head  black ;  chin 
and  throat  white,  streaked  with 
black;  eyelids  and  a  spot  above 
the  eye,  anteriorly  white;  under 
parts  and  inside  of  the  wings  chest- 
nut-brown ;  the  under  tail-coverts 
and  tibiae  white,  showing  the  plum- 
beous inner  portions  of  the  feath-  Sketch  of  principal  parts  of  the  Robin. 
ers ;  wings  dark  brown  ;  the  feath- 
ers all  edged  more  or  less  with  pale  ash ;  tail  still  darker,  the  extreme  feathers  tipped 
with  white;  bill  yellow,  dusky  along  the  ridge  and  at  the  tip.  Length  9.75;  wing 
5  43 ;  tail  4.75 ;  tarsus  1.25  inches.  Habitat,  whole  of  North  America." 


Fig.  186. 


CLASS    AVES:     ORDER    PASSERES. 


115 


Fig.  1S7. 


the  air,  but  snapping  them  up  the  moment  they  touch  the 
sod.  One  of  the  earliest-comers  and  latest-goers  of  the 
migratory  birds,  no  one  labors  more  zealously  in  the  service 
of  all,  or,  in  comparison  with  the  good  it  does,  takes  a 
smaller  amount  of  toll.*  The  female  robin  sits  fourteen 
days.  Two  broods  are  usually  reared  in  a  season,  and  often 
three  in  Southern  New  England  and  the  Middle  States. 

The  Mocking-bird  \ 
is  remarkable  for  its 
varied  melody  and  won- 
derful power  of  imita- 
tion. There  is  no  song 
or  sound  which  it  does 
not  mimic  so  perfectly 
as  to  deceive  the  most 
experienced  ear.  As  it 
pours  forth  its  medley  of 
harmonious  music  and 
discordant  noise,  birds 
answer  to  what  they  think  is  the  call  of  their  mates  or  the 
scream  of  the  hawk;  the  dog  hastens  to  what  he  imagines 
the  whistle  of  his  master;  the  hen  hurries  at  the  fancied  cry 
of  her  frightened  brood,  and  the  child  runs  to  the  window, 
attracted  by  the  supposed  sound  of  a  creaking  wheelbarrow. 

Saxicolidae  (rock-dwellers). —The  Blue-bird  alone  repre- 
sents this  family  in  America,  and  the  Robi n -redbreast  J 
(Erythacus  ruleculd)  typically  in  Europe.  Were  the  blue  of 


Mlmus polyglottus,  Mccking-bird. 


*  However  voraciously  he  may  for  a  single  month  feed  upon  strawberries  and 
cherries,  the  rest  of  the  season  he  serves  both  the  horticulturist  and  the  agricultur- 
ist. Tn  nothing  is  he  injurious  to  the  latter ;  while  to  both  he  is  invaluable  for  de- 
stroying the  larvae  of  almost  every  insect  found  upon  or  (within  the  length  of  its 
bill)  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Wherever  the  robins  and  birds  of  similar 
habits  are  destroyed,  these  insects  and  worms  increase  to  an  alarming  extent.  A 
wise  Creator  has  designed  the  birds  not,  only  for  ornament  and  pleasure,  but  to  serve 
a  definite  purpose  in  protecting  vegetation.  Prudence  would  teach  us  to  protect 
them  as  our  faithful  servants. 

t  Southern  Pennsylvania  is  the  usual  northernmost  limit  of  the  Mocking  Bird, 
although  it  has  been  known  to  breed  for  successive  years  in  Massachusetts. 

t  The  European  Robin-redbreast  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  American 
robin,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  belongs  to  a  different  family. 


116 


SUBKIXGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


the  former  replaced  by  the  brown-olive  of  the  latter,  the  two 

"birds   could    hardly   be 
distinguished.* 

Motacillidae.  —  The 
Wa  g  tail  incessantly 
flirts  its  tail  up  and 
down,  accompanying 
each  elevation  with  a 
jerking  spread.  This  is 
due  to  the  length  of  the 
tarsi  (Fig.  184),  which, 

Mafia  sialis,  Blue-bird.    J.  on  the   lowering   Of  the 

bill,  throws  the  centre  of  gravity  in  front  of  the  feet  and 
gives  the  body  a  constant  tendency  to  tumble  forward.  The 
quickly-expanding  tail  striking  against  the  air,  raises  the 
head  a^ain  with  little  effort. 


Fig,  ISO. 


190. 


Philomela  luscima,  Nightingale. 


Motacitta  alba,  White  Wagtail. 


Sylvicolid.36  (wood- warblers). — The  Nightingale  oi* 
Europe  has  been  famed  from  time  immemorial  for  the  sweet- 
ness of  its  voice.  It  is  a  shy  bird,  but  its  song  is  occasion- 
ally heard  during  the  day,  though  it  is  most  pleasing  in  the 

*  Their  social  nature  corresponds  as  fully  as  their  physical,  and  the  hlue-bird 
would  fljrure  as  appropriately  in  the  beautiful  legend  of  "  The  Babes  in  the  Wood  "as 
the  traditional  robin -redbreast. 


CLASS  AYES:  ORDER  PASSERES. 


11? 


silence  and  serenity  of  a  moonlight  evening.  Both  sexes 
sing,  though  the  male  excels.  Its  plumage  is  a  modest 
reddish-brown 


Mg.  191. 


Fig.  192. 


above    and  a 

whitish -gray  beneath — a  mim- 
icry adapting  it  to  the  foliage 
among  which  it  loves  to  hide 
itself. 

Hirnndinidoe.— The  Swal- 
lows have  long  wings,  which 
enable  them  to  be  almost  con- 
stantly in  flight.*  The  Barn 
Swallow  is  the  most  common 
species,  and  is  deservedly  a 

favorite,  as  there  is  no  evil   mrundo toS^^Bam  Swallow, 
blended  with  its  many  bene- 
fits.    Purely  insectivorous,  it  destroys  alike  the  pests  of 
fruit  trees,  of  cattle,  and  of  man. 

Ampelidae  (wax-wings). — The  Cedar-lird  is  noticeable 
for  the  exquisitely  fine  and  silky 
texture  of  its  plumage  ;  its  erectile 
crest;  and  the  remarkable  ap- 
pendages to  the  shafts  of  the  sec- 
ondaries (and  sometimes  to  the 
tail),  of  a  bright  vermilion,  re- 
sembling red  sealing-wax.  It  ap- 
pears in  New  England  about  the 
last  of  May,  in  flocks  of  fifteen  or 
twenty,  ridding  the  orchards  of 
the  destructive  span-worm  and  the 
canker-worm;  and  then  pairing 
off  and  nesting  late  in  June  or 
Ampm  cedrdrum,  Cedar-bird,  j.  early  in  July.  In  return  for  its 

*  The  Swallow  attains  the  rate  of  more  than  a  mile  a  minute,  which,  if  sustained 
daring  ten  hours  a  day  for  ten  years,  the  supposed  life  of  the  bird,  would  give  over 
two  million  miles,  or  upwards  of  eighty-seven  times  the  circumference  cf  the  globa 
—The  wide-spread  belief  that  the  flying  high  of  swallows  indicates  settled  fair 
weather,  and  the  flying  low  foul  weather,  may  have  foundation  in  the  barometric 
changes  of  the  atmosphere,  varying  the  height  of  the  strata  of  air  in  which  they 
forage  for  insects. 


118  SUBKIXGDOM  VERTEBRATA. 

invaluable  services,  it  helps  itself  somewhat  freely  to  the 
j-    193  smaller  fruits,  and  hence 

is  most  unwisely  perse- 
cuted.* 

Laniidse.  —  The 
Shrike  devours  the  larger 
insects  and  smaller  birds, 
striking  them  senseless 
by  one  blow  upon  the 
head  with  its  powerful 
toothed  beak.  Its  claws 

Cottvno  dorealis,  Shrike  or  Butcher-bird.    *.      being  feeble,   it   impales 

its  victims  upon  thorns,  often  a  number  at  a  time  on  the 
same  bush,  that  it  may  eat  them  at  its  leisure.  While  dis- 
membering, it  cunningly  stands  upon  the  inner  side,  so  as  to 
transfix  them  more  completely.! 

Tanagridae. — The  male  Scarlet  Tanager,  in  the  third  and 
following  years,  has,  with  the  exception  of  the  jet-black 
wings  and  tail,  a  fiery-red 
plumage,  in  brilliant  con- 
trast with  the  green  leaves 
among  which  it  flits.  After 
the  August  molting,  and 
during  the  first  year,  it  is 
not  distinguishable,  in  its 
greenish  livery,  from  the 
female,  its  gay  summer 
plumage  being  assumed  on 
re-entering  our  southern 
borders  in  the  spring.  The 

birds    Of    this    family    feed         Fyranga  rvtra,  Scarlet  Tanager. 

mainly  upon  the  insects  in  the  topmost  branches  of  trees, 

*  Often  alighting  Bide  by  Bide,  the  outer  one  of  the  series  will  pluck  a  cherry 
within  reach  and  pass  it  to  the  second,  and  he  to  the  third,  and  so  on  to  the  end,  and 
then  hack  again  to  where  it  started,  repeating  the  manoeuvre  several  times,  until,  the 
appetite  whetted  up,  some  one  of  the  line  will  take  a  bite  and  spoil  the  fun. 

t  In  like  manner  it  has  been  observed,  when  in  confinement,  to  weave  the  body 
of  a  mouse  between  the  wires  of  the  cage,  that  it  might  bear  a  heavier  pull  while  being 
torn  in  pieces. 


CLASS  AYES:    ORDER  PASSERES. 


11? 


and  claim  protection  as  among  the  most  useful  of   are 
songsters. 

Fringillidae. — The  Finches*  are  distinguished  by  a  short, 
conical  bill,  usually  notched.  The  Song-sparrows  are  our 
earliest  and  latest  musicians.  Those  nesting  in  the  far 
north  pass  the  latitude  of  New  England  late  in  November, 
and  return  in  early  March ;  always  in  full  song,  with  notes 
"  louder,  clearer,  and  more  vibratory  than  those  that  come  to 
us  and  remain  to  breed."  f  It  nests  both  on  the  ground  and 
in  trees,  only  the  older  birds  selecting  the  latter,  as  though 
taught  by  experience  the  greater  security. 


Fig.  195. 


Fig.  196. 


Metosjhza  melodia,  Song  Sparrow.    J. 


Curcirostra  lettcoptZra. 
Curoirostra  americana. 
Cross  Bill.    i. 


The  Cross  Bill,  when  matured,  has  its  mandibles  lapping, 
though  the  young  do  not  possess  this  peculiarity.  While 
this  anomalous  form  does  not  unfit  the  bird  for  eating 

*  The  necessity  of  examining  not  only  a  great  number  of  specimens  of  the  same 
bird,  hut  also  those  from  different  localities,  is  especially  apparent  in  this  family. 
Each  region  of  North  America  seems  to  possess  a  different  variety.  So  completely, 
however,  do  the  forms  of  a  series  of  hundreds  of  specimens  from  different  places 
insensibly  grade  into  one  another,  that  eight  species  have  been  united  in  one  by 
tecent  authors 

t  Individuals  have  been  known  to  sing  "nine  entirely  different  sets  of  notes," 
usually  uttering  them  one  after  another  in  the  same  order." 


120 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


Fig.  197. 


Eremophlla  cornuta,  Shore  Lark. 


insects  and  soft  fruit,  it  peculiarly  adapts  it  to  obtain  food 

from  the  seed  of  pine  and 
fir  cones.* 

Alaudidse. — The  Larks 
are  distinguished  by  long 
and  nearly,  straight  hind 
claws.  The  Shore  Lark  is 
the  only  representative  in- 
digenous to  North  America, 
but  the  most  noted  is  the 
European  Skylark,  now  par- 
tially domesticated  in  the 
United  States.  It  rises  with 

quivering  wings  almost  perpendicularly,  singing  the  while, 
until  it  passes  out  of  sight,  though  not  out  of  hearing;  and 
then,  closing  its  wings,  drops  headlong  down  into  the 
meadow  again,  in  a  very  ecstacy  of  song. 

Icteridae. — The  Bobolink  is  one 
of  the  most  beneficial  or  destructive 
of  birds,  according  to  the  season 
of  the  year  and  the  locality.  In  its 
spring  migrations,  it  is  the  pest  of 
the  Southern  wheat-fields  ;  and  in  its 
autumnal  flight,  of  the  rice  planta- 
tions. It  renders,  however,  a  re- 
deeming service  in  devouring  cotton- 
worm  larvae,  and  in  its  breeding- 
places  it  is  purely  insectivorous.  The 
female  conceals  her  nest  on  the 
ground  among  the  standing  grass  by 
alighting  or  rising  a  distance  from  it.f 


Fig.  198. 


Dolichfmyx  oryziv&rus, 
Bobolink,  or  Rice-bird.    \. 


*  These  seeds  are  concealed  beneath  hard  scales.  To  secure  them  the  bird,  cling- 
ing to  the  slender  twig  with  one  foot,  grasps  the  cone  with  the  other;  then  inserting 
its  bill  between  the  scales,  by  drawing  the  lower  mandible  sideways,  pries  them 
apart,  when  the  tongue,  which  is  furnished  with  a  peculiar  horny  scoop,  darts  into 
the  opening,  dislodges  the  seed  and  carries  it  to  the  mouth. 

t  The  grotesque,  though  charming  song  of  the  Bobolink  is  a  curious  medley  of 
jingling,  incomprehensible  notes,  uttered  with  a  volubility  and  earnestness  that  bor- 
ders upon  the  ludicrous,  especially  when  thirty  or  forty  begin,  one  after  another,  and 


CLASS  AYES:    ORDER  PASSERES. 


121 


Fig.  200. 


The  Cow-'bird  is  gregarious  and  polygamous,  exhibiting 
neither  conjugal  nor  parental  affection.  The  female  lays  in 
the  nests  of  other  birds,  Fig  m 

usually  those  of  similar 
appetite,  and  whose  eggs 
hatch  two  days  later. 
The  adopted  nestling 
being  larger,  obtains  the 
greater  share  of  food, 
and  its  foster  compan- 
ions are  generally  soon 
stifled  or  starved.* 

The  Baltimore  Oriole,  Volothrus  pecoris,  Cow-bird. 

noticeable  for  its  brilliant  plumage,  almost  invariably  reaches 
the  latitude  of  Southern  New  England  on  the  10th  of  May. 

Its  rich  and  full- toned 
melody  defies  verbal 
equivalents.!  Though 
pernicious  by  injuring 
the  pea-crop,  it  more 
than  compensates  by 
destroying  the  canker- 
worm  and  the  tent- 
caterpillar,  which  few 

*f  ^Hi         birds  venture  to  dis- 

N\  turb>  The  oriole's  nest 

Icterus  baltimore,  Golden  Robin.  $.  is  composed  of  Vege- 
table fibres,  hair,  etc.,  woven  into  a  kind  of  purse  hung  from 
the  end  of  a  limb.]; . 

at  length  get  into  an  exact  concert ;  but,  when  the  listener  is  just  beginning  to  be 
enraptured,  the  music  ceases  as  suddenly  as  if  an  organ-bellows  had  burst 

*  Their  dead  bodies  are  probably  removed  by  their  parents,  as  they  are  never 
found  near  the  nest,  which  would  be  the  case,  if,  like  the  cuckoo  of  Europe,  they  were 
thrown  out  by  the  young  cow-bird. 

t  Nuttall  describes  the  notes  of  its  song  thus :  Tshippe-tshayia-too-too-tshippe- 
the-tshippe-too-too.  The  failure  will  be  apparent  to  all  who  compare  it  with  the 
original. 

$  In  the  museum  of  Brown  University  is  a  nest  originally  sustained  by  threads 
fastened  around  two  twigs  forming  a  fork.  One  of  the  twigs  breaking  off  three  days 
before  the  young  were  ready  to  fly,  the  old  bird  procured  a  piece  of  twine  at  least 


122 


SUBKINGDOM  VERTEBKATA. 


Fig.  SOL 


Corvus  cor 'ax ;  Raven. 


Corvidae.— The  true 
Crow  and  the  Jay  pass  so 
insensibly  into  each  other 
as  hardly  to  present  a  di- 
viding line.  The  Raven, 
though  rare  in  the  Eastern 
States,  is  generally  dis- 
tributed throughout  North 
America.*  It  exhib- 
its wonderful  sagacity  in 


two  feet  in  length,  and,  after  winding  several  inches  of  one  end  many  times  around 
the  part  of  the  branch  still  imbedded  in  the  matting  of  the  nest,  drew  all  taut  and 
then  fastened  the  other  end  by  a  tuck-under  knot,  to  a  fork 
in  the  branch  full  ten  inches  above.  Fig.  202  is  en- 
graved from  a  photograph  of  this  curiously-mended  nest, 
kindly  furnished  by 
the  curator  of  the  mu-  piq  20" 
seum,  Prof.  J.  W.  P. 
Jenks. 


*  The  Raven  is  generally  consid* 
Jered  as  of  evil  omen.    It  is  easily 
'tamed  and  taught  to  repeat  sentences. 
Pliny  tells  of  one  which  was  accus- 
tomed  to  stand  in  a  public  place  in 
Rome,  and  call  out  the  name  of  every 
passer-by.    There  is  a  story  related  of 
an  awkward  horseman  who  fell  from  his 
seat,  and  at  that  moment  a  raven  in  the  tree 
above  cried  out,  with  its  solemn  voice,  "  How 
silly  I"    Charles  Dickens  in  his  preface  to  Bar- 
naby  Rudgc,  gives  his  amusing  experience 
with  tame  ravens.    Our  Common  Crow  ( Cor- 
vus americanun)  can  be  distinguished  from  the  Raven  by  being  much  smaller  and  by 


Nest  of  Oriole. 


CLASS    AVES:     ORDER    PASSERES. 


123 


eluding  the  hunter,  seeming  to  detect  at  a  glance  the  differ- 
Ft.g.  203.  ence  between  a  person  going  quietly 

about  his  business  and  one  "  on  mis- 
chief bent." 

The  Blue  Jay's  pleasing  plumage  is 
in  startling  contrast  with  the  harsh 
notes  of  its  ordinary  song.  Though 
irritable  and  quarrelsome,  it  has  been 
tamed  and  taught  to  pronounce  cer- 
tain words.  It  is  of  great  service  in 
planting  the  seeds  of  forest  trees  and 
in  devouring,  during  the  winter  sea- 
son, the  eggs  of  the  destructive  tent- 
caterpillar. 

Ploceidse. — The  Weaver-birds  are 

cyanura  cristata,  Blue  Jay.  j.  found  only  in  India  and  Africa,  and 

are  named  from  the  inimitable  construction  of  their  nests. 

Some  are  pendent  from  the  twigs  of  tall  trees  overhanging  a 

stream,  and  are  shaped  like  an  inverted  bottle  or  chemical 

retort,  with  a  long  tube 

for  the  entrance,  made  of 

fibres  so  loosely  put  to- 
gether   that     a     reptile 

would  drop  off  into  the 

water.     Others   similarly 

suspended  are  pyramidal 

in  shape  and  divided  into 

two  chambers — the  outer, 

perhaps,   for   the   use   of 

the  male  and  the  inner 

for  the  eggs. 

The    Sociable    Weaver- 


Fig. 


Nest  of  Sociable  Weaver-bird. 


Urd  is  polygamous.  A  colony  of  two  or  three  hundred  con- 
having  its  throat-feathers  oval  and  close ;  while  those  of  the  raven  are  sharp  and 
scattered.  The  fiook  (C.  frugilegus),  so  familiar  to  every  European  traveler  and 
which  congregates  in  flocks  about  churches  and  old  ruins,  does  not  eat  carrion.  The 
fondness  of  the  raven  for  such  food  explains  why  the  one  sent  from  the  Ark  by 
Noah  returned  no  more  to  him. 


124: 


SUBKINGDOM    VEETEBRATA. 


Fig.  206. 


m-  struct   in    a  tree   a   huge, 

sloping  roof,  impervious  to 
rain.  Beneath  this,  side  by 
side,  each  female  makes  her 
nest,  three  or  four  inches  in 
diameter,  weaving  it  to  the 
roof.  When  completed,  the 
lower  surface  of  the  umbrel- 
la-like structure  appears  per- 
forated by  small  openings, 

Ploctussodus,  Sociable  Weaver-bird.    *.      jike  the  cellg  Of  a  bee-hive, 

all  the  birds  living  together  in  perfect  harmony. 

Paradiseidae.  —  The 
Paradise-birds  are  na- 
tives of  New  Guinea  and 
the  adjacent  islands.  The 
apoda  *  (footless)  is  the 
most  beautiful.  The 
brilliant  plumed  tufts 
beneath  its  wings  and 
the  bright  emerald  green 
of  its  head  and  neck  are 
particularly  striking. 

Menuridse . — The 
Lyre-birds  of  Australia 
are  noticeable  for  the 
shape  of  the  tail  and 
their  habit  of  making 
small  round  hillocks,  on 
which  the  male  is  con- 
tinually trampling 
while  gracefully  erecting  and  spreading 
its  plumes. 

*  The  bird  was  eo  named  from  the  absurd  belief  pre- 
vailing, when  it  was  first  introduced  to  the  civilized  world, 
that  it  had  no  feet,  the  cunning  natives  being  accustomed 
to  cut  them  off,  and  to  assert  that  the  bird  hung  to  the  trees 
by  its  plumes,  and  that  it  passed  the  breeding-season  in 
Paradise,  fed  on  dew. 


Paradise  a  apoda, 

Emerald 
Bird  of  Paradise.    |. 


CLASS    AVES:     ORDER    PICARI^.  125 

Fig.  207.  Mg.  208. 


Myiarchus  crinltus^ 
Menura  superba^  Lyre-bird.    T's.  Great  Crested  Flycatcher.    |. 

Tyrannidae.— The  Fly-catchers  are  American,  though 
comparatively  few  of  the  genera  belong  to  North  America. 
They  are  not  strictly  insectivorous,  but  in  general  are  indis- 
pensable to  the  farmer. 

The  Great-crested  F.  is  extending  its  habitat  northward 
and  eastward  to  localities  where  it  was  unknown  at  the 
beginning  of  the  century.  It  makes  its  nest  in  hollow  trees 
or  stumps,  generally  lining  it  with  cast-off  snake-cuticles. 

ORDER     PICARI^E. 

General  Characteristics. — To  the  peculiarities  of  this 
order  given  in  the  table,  p.  113,  may  be  added  their  altricial 
nature,  though  the  young  are  in  some  species  hatched  with 
down. 

Alcedinidae. — The  King-fishers*  have  a  long,  pointed 
beak,  and  the  outer  and  middle  toes  united  as  far  as  the  last 
joint.  For  nesting,  they  dig  holes  ten  to  fifteen  feet  deep  in 
a  sandbank. 

*  They  always  bring  the  fish  out  of  the  water  seized  near  the  tail.  If  small,  it  is? 
swallowed  immediately,  head  foremost ;  if  large,  it  is  carried  to  a  rock  or  stump  and 
thrashed  till  dead. 


120 


SUBKIKGDOM    VEIITEBRATA. 


CaprimTilgidae  (goat-suckers).— 
The  Night  Hawk,*  notwithstanding 

Fig.  209. 


Fig.  210. 


m 


Chordeiles  popetue.  Night  Hawk. 


Ceryle  alcfyon^ 
Belted  King-fisher,    f. 


Fig.  911. 


its  popular  name,  retires  to  rest  at  ^ 
the  close  of  twilight,  when  it  can  no 
longer  discern  its  insect  prey.f  Its 
sharp  squeak  is  occasionally  varied  by  a  loud,  booming 
sound,  emitted  when  its  downward  flight  is  arrested  during  a 
swoop  near  the  surface  of  the  earth. J  Its  two  eggs  are 
usually  laid  on  a  rock  or  some  place  exposed  to  the  sun, 

without  any  nest,  though 
the  mother  broods  them 
assiduously,  fluttering 
away,  when  alarmed,  as 
though  wounded.  If  dis- 
turbed, it  will,  like  the 
whippoorwill,  carry  off  the 
eggs  or  young  in  its  capa- 
cious mouth  to  another 
locality.  The  Whippoorwill 
j.  is  silent  during  the  day, 

*  The  Night  Hawk  and  Whippoorwill  are  commonly  believed  to  be  identical."  They 
are  really,  however,  distinct  not  only  in  color  markings,  but  also  generically,  thus: 

PAPRIMIHPin^1     $  GAPE  WITHOUT  BRISTLES.  Tail  narrow,  forked  ;       Night  Hawk 

'    ?   GAPE  WITH  BRISTLES.  Tail  broad,  rounded  ;       WJiippooririll 

t  Its  singular  habit  of  perching  lengthwise  on  a  limb  or  rail  is  well  known  ;  but  in 
confinement  it  often  perches  across  a  finger,  or  the  back  of  a  chair. 

t  The  former  sound  is  produced  by  its  vocal  organs;  the  latter,  by  a  quick, 
vibrating  motion  of  the  wings. 


CLASS    AVES:     OEDEB    PICARI^E. 


Fig. 


but  at  night  comes  forth  to  watch  for  beetles,  moths,  etc.    If 

it  does  not  seize  an  insect  at  the  first  dash,  the  exceedingly 

sensitive  bristles  lining  the 

sides  of  the  upper  mandible 

tell  which  way  the  prey  is 

moving.     After  each  sally  it 

returns  to  the    same    spot. 

Its  middle  toe  is  pectinated, 

doubtless   for    cleaning   its 

bristles. 

The  Chuck-will' s-widow  of 
the  South  is  larger  than  the 
Whippoorwill,  and  has  bris- 
tles with  lateral  filaments. 

Trogonidae.  —  The  Tro- 
gons  of  the  tropics  are  pre- 
eminent for  brilliancy  of 
plumage.* 

Cypselidae.— The  8wift\ 
alights  readily  on  a  perpen- 
dicular surface,  to  which  it 
clings  with  its  sharp  claws 
and  short  spined  tail.  The 
Chimney-swallow,  the  only 

*  The  ancient  Mexicans  kept  large 
aviaries  of  these  birds  hoth  on  account 
of  their  beauty  and  their  gorgeous 
plumes,  which  were  plucked  at  a  certain 
season  and  worked  into  mosaic  images 
and  pictures. 

t  This  bird  is  so  called  from  its  un- 
rivaled power  of  wing,  though  it  lacks 
the  speed  and  grace  of  the  Hirundiuidae. 
— One  species  of  this  family  (Cottocafaa 
esculenta)  is  the  principal  maker  of  the 
"  Edible  birds'  nests."  These  are  con- 
structed with  bits  of  sea-weed,  meta- 
morphosed in  the  bird's  stomach, 
disgorged  and  attached  to  the  rocks. 
When  washed  and  soaked,  they-iorm  a 
gelatinous  substance  highly  esteemed 

among  the  Chinese  for  making  soup.  Trogon  resplendens, 

The  nests  are  taken  down  three  or  four  Resplendent  Trogon. 


128 


SUBKINGDOM    VEETEBEATA. 


Chcetttra  pelasgia, 


Fig.  218.  American   species,   with    its   feet, 

while  on  the  wing,  adroitly  breaks 
off  twigs  and  fastens  them  to  the 
chimney  with  its  tough,  glue-like 
saliva  so  strongly  that  the  brick  to 
which  the  nest  is  attached  will 
sometimes  yield  before  the  cement. 
Trochilidae.  —  Humming-birds 
are  peculiarly  American.  About 
450  species  are  recognized,  yet  only 
one,  the  Ruby-throated,  visits  the 
North  Atlantic  States,  and  but  ten 
any  part  of  the  United  States 

chimney-swallow  or  Swift.  \.  They  are  the  smallest  as  well  as  the 
gayest  of  birds,  blending  in  their  rich  plumage  the  rarest 
colors  of  flower  and  gem.  Their  bills,  shaped  according  to 
the  form  of  the  blossom 
they  are  designed  to  pene- 
trate for  insects,  vary  great- 
ly— some  being  short  and 
straight,  others  longer  than 
their  bodies,,  and  yet  others 
greatly  curved.  The  hum- 
ming-bird can  fly  so  rapidly 
that  the  eye  can  scarcely 
follow  its  flight,  or,  by  beat- 
ing the  air  with  its  wings, 
sustain  itself  in  front  of  a 
flower  almost  immovable. 
All  the  species  build  tiny, 

times  per  year  from  the  caves  to  which 
the  swallows  are  accustomed  to  resort, 
the  old  nests  being  destroyed  to  com- 
pel the  birds  to  build  new  ones,  which, 
when  fresh  and  unused,  bring  their 
weight  in  silver.  The  proprietors  of  a 
cave  in  Java  are  said  to  receive  50,000 
florins  annually  for  rent,  and  4,000,000 
nests  are  yearly  exported  from  the  coast 
of  Cochin  China.  ~"  Nest  of  Humming-bird. 


Trocttilus  colubriSi 
Ruby-throated  Humming-bird. 

Fig.  215. 


CLASS    AVESI     OKDER    PICARI^B. 


129 


Fig.  216. 


Coccftgus  americanus, 
Yellow-billed  Cuckoo.    J. 


cup-shaped  nests  of  vegetable  down,  with  an  outer  coating  of 
lichens    glued    on  with   saliva. 
Each  contains  two  little  white 
eggs,  the  size  of  a  pea. 

Cuculidse. — The  Cuckoos  in- 
habit all  countries.  Their  toes 
are  in  pairs,  the  exterior  being 
somewhat  reversible,  in  one 
species  entirely  so.  The  only 
species  found  in  England  is 
parasitical  in  its  incubation, 
like  the  American  cow-bird.  Its 
young,  however,  hatches  simul- 
taneously with  its  nest-compan- 
ions, whom  it  soon  tosses  out 
upon  the  ground  to  perish. 

The  Road  Runner,  a  ground  bird  *  found  in  southwestern 
North  America,  is  so  swift  of  foot  that  for  a  quarter  of  a 

mile  it   will  outrun   a 
fleet  horse. 

The  Yellow  -  billed 
Cuckoo,  with  its  near 
relative,  the  Black-billed 
(Coccygus  erythroph- 
thalmus),  is  found 
throughout  North 
America.  They  are  both 
fond  of  hairy  caterpil- 

Geococcyx  calif  or  nianus,  Road  Runner.    T\.        japg      wnjc}1     few    birds 

will  eat.f  Unlike  the  European  species,  they  build  a  nest, 
though  it  is  rude  and  airy.  Laying  their  eggs,  however,  at 
long  intervals,  they  protract  the  breeding  season  from  one  to 
four  months;  the  same  nest  often  containing  a  freshly-laid 

*  It  always  carries  the  beetles  and  snails  on  which  it  feeds  to  a  particular  spot  in 
order  to  break  the  shell,  and  thus  piles  of  the  broken  fragments  collect  at  that  place. 

t  The  cuckoo's  gizzard  is  often  found  lined  with  caterpillar's  hairs,  so  tenaciously 
adhering  by  their  minute  barbs  as  to  require  microscopic  examination  to  prove  that 
they  do  not  grow  from  the  coating  of  the  stomach. 


Fig. 


130 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


egg,  one  just  hatching,  a  young  bird  partly  fledged,  and 
another  ready  to  fly. 

Hhamphastidse. — The  Toucan*  is  noted  for  an  enor- 
mous bill.  Its  honeycomb  structure,  however,  makes  it 
light,  and  its  form  adapts  it  to  extract  eggs  from  deep  holes 
and  nests  for  food. 

Mg.  218.  Fig.  219. 


Rhamphastos  tuc&nus, 
Toucan,  South  America,    f . 


Campephllus  principalis, 
Ivory-billed  Woodpecker. 


Picidae. — The  Woodpeckers  are  the  typical  Zygodactyles 
(yoke-toed),  having  toes  in  pairs,  one  before  and  one  behind. 
Their  tongue  can  be  thrust  far  out,  and  a  hole  once  made  to 
the  lurking-place  of  an  insect,  the  tip,  barbed  on  the  upper 
side  and  viscid  with  saliva,  quickly  transfers  the  victim  to 
the  gullet  of  its  captor.  The  spiny  tail  of  most  of  the  species 
aids  in  supporting  the  body.  The  lustrous,  white  eggs  are 
laid  on  chips  at  the  bottom  of  their  holes. 

The  Ivory-billed  Woodpecker  is  the  largest  north  of  Central 
America.  With  its  wedge-shaped  bill  it  can  bore  a  hole 
three  feet  deep  for  its  nest  in  the  trunk  of  a  living  tree.f  As 

*  The  word  Toucan  means  feather,  and  refers  to  its  barb-covered  tongue.  On 
account  of  its  habit  of  assembling  in  flocks  to  chatter,  it  is  called  among  the  natives 
the  Preacher-bird. 

|  This  bird  is  so  strong  that  strips  of  bark  several  inches  in  length  are  often 
detached  at  a  single  blow,  and  with  such  rapidity  as  to  sound  like  a  falling  shower. 


CLASS  AYES:   ORDER  PSITTACI. 


131 


a  protection  from  the  rain,  it  generally  makes  the  opening 
under  a  large  branch.  Its  undulating  flight,  often  by  a  sin- 
gle sweep  from  tree  to  tree,  as  if  the  bird  had  been  swung 
with  closed  wings  in  a  curved  line,  is  the  perfection  of 
graceful  movement. 

The  Golden-winged  Woodpecker  is  the  most  extensively 
distributed  through  North  America,  and  the  most  beautifully 
colored  of  its  family.  The  male  cannot  be  distinguished 
from  the  female,  except  by  the  black  patches  on  its  cheeks, 
looking  like  side- whiskers. 

Fig. 
Fig.  mo. 


Colaptes  auratus, 
Golden-winged  Woodpecker. 


Picoides  hirsutus, 
Banded  Three-toed  Woodpecker. 


The  Tliree-toed  Woodpecker ',  of  which  there  are  three  spe- 
cies, is  rarely  found  south  of  the  Canadas  or  Northern  Maine. 


ORDER     PSITTACI. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Parrots  have  a  thick 
bill,  the  upper  mandible  strongly  hooked  at  the  end,  with  a 
naked  space  at  the  base;  tongue  fleshy  and  round;  and 
neither  toe  versatile.  In  captivity  they  may  be  taught  to 
imitate  the  human  voice,  but  not  as  well  as  other  species  of 
birds.*  The  only  family  (Psittacidce)  embraces  about  three 

*  Its  language  is  often  so  pat  as  to  show  that  the  bird  really  understands  its  use. 
Goldsmith  tells  a  story  of  a  parrot  belonging  to  Henry  VIII,  which  fell  into  the 


132 


SUBKI^GDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


fontirus  carolinensis, 
Carolina  Parrot.    £. 


Cacatua  sulphured, 
Sulphur-crested  Cockatoo. 


hundred  and  fifty  species,  fully  one-half  belonging  to  South 
America. 

The  Carolina  Parrot,  the  single  species  found  in  the 
United  States,  is  rapidly  becoming  extinct.  Its  curiosity  is 
its  greatest  foe.  One  of  a  flock  being  shot,  the  rest  will  keep 
alighting  near  by,  till  all  are  captured. 

Cockatoos  are  forms  often  seen  in  our  menageries.  One 
genus  is  distinguished  for  its  size  and  erectile,  sulphur- 
colored  crest,  but  especially  for  its  longevity — individuals 
having  lived  in  captivity  more  than  a  hundred  years. 

ORDER     RAPTORES.* 
General  Characteristics. — The  canine  teeth  and  power- 


Thames.  It  immediately  bawled  out  "  A  boat !  a  boat !  twenty  pounds  to  save  me." 
A  man  thinking  some  one  was  drowning,  threw  himeelf  into  the  river,  but  was 
astonished  to  discover  it  was  only  a  bird.  Finding  the  king  was  its  master  he  carried 
it  to  him  and  claimed  the  promised  reward.  Henry  laughing  at  the  story  paid  the 
amount  "  with  good  grace."— Lord  Dundonald,  in  his  autobiography,  says  that  once 
some  ladies  were  being  hoisted  up  the  sides  of  a  vessel  by  means  of  a  chair  suspend- 
ed by  a  rope.  Two  or  three  had  been  safely  deposited  on  deck,  when,  as  the  chair 
was  just  starting  again,  a  parrot  shouted  out  "  Let  go  I"  The  sailors,  thinking  it  the 
boatswain's  order,  dropped  the  rope,  and  away  went  the  poor  lady,  chair  and  all, 
into  the  sea. 

*  The  birds  of  prey  do  not  deserve  the  name  of  u  robbers."    Their  carnivorous 
propensities  are  only  in  accordance  with  their  physiological  structure,  which  de- 


CLASS    AVES:     OEDEE    EAPTOEES. 


133 


EYES  DIRECTED 
FORWARD  ; 

J  OUTER  TOE  REVERSIBLE. 

Strigidae,         Owl. 

EYES  LATERAL; 
HEAD  FEATHERED  ; 

£  CLAWS  SHARP. 

Falconidse,      Hawk. 

EYES  LATERAL  ; 
HEAD  NAKED  ; 

\  CLAWS  BLUNT. 

Cathartidae,    Vulture. 

Fig. 


ful  claws  of  the  carnivorous  mammals  find  their  counterpart 
in  the  hooked  beak  and  powerful  talons  of  the  carnivorous 
birds.  The  plumage  of  the  sexes  is  usually  unlike,  and  the 
offspring  for  two  or  three  seasons  resembles  the  mother-bird. 
The  male  of  most  species  is  smaller  than  the  female,  and  not 
quite  so  plain  in  its  color. 

The  order  is  thus  tabulated  into  Families : 


RAPTORES. 


Strigidae.* — The  Owls  comprise  about  two  hundred  spe- 
cies. The  sexes  are  colored  alike, 
and  the  mottled  markings  are 
nearly  as  apparent  in  the  young  as 
the  old.  Many  species,  however, 
are  dimorphous  (double  form)  in 
plumage. f  So  soft  and  downy  are 
the  feathers,  that  in  its  nocturnal 
foraging  the  owl's  flight  is  noiseless 
as  a  shadow ;  while  its  acute  sense 
of  hearing  detects  the  feeblest 
tread  of  a  mouse.  Living  upon  in- 
jurious vermin,  it  deserves  protec- 
tion from  the  ruthless  war  waged 
against  it.  The  owl  is  the  only 
bird  that  can  bring  both  eyes  simul- 
taneously to  bear  upon  an  object. 


Bubo  virginianus, 
Great-horned  Owl.    T\. 


mands  animal  food.  Their  place  in  the  economy  of  nature  is  therefore  as  fixed  as 
that  of  the  animals  on  which  they  prey ;  and  to  associate  with  them  notions  of 
cruelty  and  rapine  is  unwarrantable  and  irreverent.  They  do  not,  it  is  true,  charm 
our  ears  by  their  songs,  nor  delight  our  eye  with  their  colors— for  either  would  betray 
their  presence  to  their  victims  and  frustrate  the  design  of  their  creation— but  they 
faithfully  perform  their  mission  as  scavengers.  They  also,  like  the  carnivora  gener- 
ally, serve  to  prevent  the  undue  increase  of  the  Herbivora. 

*  This  extensive  family  is"  cosmopolitan,  several  species  being  circumpolar,  and 
at  least  two  existing  all  over  the  world,  unless  Australia  be  an  exception. 

t  Two  young  of  the  same  sex  in  the  same  nest  may  start  with  different  markings 
and  retain  them  through  life. 


134 


STJBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


The  Great-horned  Owl,  with  a  single  exception,  is  the 
largest  in  the  United  States.  It  is  often  called  the  Cat  Owl, 
as  its  tufts,  erectile  at  will,  give  its  head  a  sinister  aspect  not 
unlike  that  animal. 

Falconidae.— The  Falcons,  Hawks,  and  Eagles  are  in- 
cluded in  this  family.  They  are  wont  to  dash  their  prey  to 
the  ground,  and  with  their  powerful  talons  *  carry  it  to  a 
quiet  spot  to  eat  uninterrupted ;  or,  if  too  large  to  bear  away, 
to  gorge  themselves  and  then  retreat  to  some  sequestered 
place  for  digestion,  f 


Fig. 


Fctico  sparvenus,  Sparrow  Hawk. 


Astur  atricapittus,  Goshawk. 


The  Sparrow  Hawk,  though  one  of  the  smallest,  is  a  typica] 
Falcon.     So  quickly  does  it  close  its  wings  when  alighting 


*  When  a  Bird  of  Prey  wishes  to  kill  an  animal  with  its  claws  it  has  only  to  rest 
down  with  its  own  weight,  and  the  bending  of  the  legs  will  thrust  its  talons  deep 
into  the  flesh  of  its  victim,  (see  Fig.  27).— The  principle  is  illustrated  in  the  roosting 
of  a  common  fowl.  When  asleep  it  retains  its  hold  of  its  perch  by  one  foot,  the 
other  being  drawn  up  under  the  feathers.  Its  grasp  of  the  perch  is  involuntary,  the 
muscles  of  the  leg  being  so  contrived  that  when  the  limb  is  bent  the  foot  closes  and 
remains  so  without  any  exertion  of  the  will ;  and  when  straightened,  the  toes  open 
and  the  hold  is  relaxed.  A  bird  cannot  keep  its  foot  open  when  its  leg  is  bent.  This 
may  be  verified  by  watching  a  fowl  walking.  It  closes  its  toes  as  it  lifts  its  foot,  and 
spreads  them  out  again  as  they  touch  the  ground. 

t  They  then  vomit  forth,  in  rounded  pellets,  the  indigestible  bones  and  feathers 
which  they  have  swallowed  in  their  eager  haste. 


CLASS  AVES  :  ORDER  RAPTORES. 


135 


Fig.  227. 


Polybdrus  tharus,  Caracara  Eagle. 


that  they  seem   to  disappear.    It  will   often   imitate   the 

cry  of  a  young  bird,  to 

call    the  old  within    its 

grasp. 

The  Goshawk,  or  Blue 

Hen  Hawk  flies  low,  until 

just  over  its  prey,  when  it 

stretches  down  its  power- 
ful talons  and  catches  it 

up,  with  hardly  a  devia- 
tion from    a    horizontal 

course.* 

The  Caracara  Eagle  of 

tropical  America  relishes 

dead  and  living  animals  equally,  and  carries  off  its  prey  with 

either  beak  or  claw. 

The  Swallow-tailed  Haivlc 
feeds  upon  reptiles  and  in- 
sects,! k^  never  upon  birds 
or  quadrupeds. 

The  White-headed  Eagle 
is  the  chosen  symbol  of  our 
country.  J  It  rises  in  the 
air  by  a  series  of  spiral 
curves,  and  with  an  almost 
imperceptible  motion  of  its 
wings,  until  it  is  a  mere 
speck  in  the  sky.  Thence  it 

descends  with  lightning-like  velocity.     Its  swoop  is  in  a 

*  A  Goshawk  was  once  observed  to  dart  with  the  swiftness  of  an  arrow  upon  a 
flock  of  blackbirds  crossing  a  river,  and,  giving  five  successively  the  death-squeeze, 
to  return  and  pick  them  up  one  by  one  and  bear  them  to  the  shore  to  be  eaten 
at  leisure. 

t  Fond  of  wasps,  it  may  sometimes  be  seen  holding  a  nest  in  one  claw  and 
picking  out  the  grubs  with  its  bill.  It  has  been  known  to  pursue  a  swarm  of  bees, 
catching  them  with  its  claws. 

*  Equally  indifferent  to  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  as  well  as  to  a  maritime  or 
an  inland  life ;  now  honestly  pursuing  an  independent    vocation,  and  anon  acting  the 
part  of  a  freebooter  and  robbing  the  Fish-hawk  of  its  well-earned  food,  it  is  not  an 
altogether  unsuitable  emblem  of  the  nation. 


Nauderusfnrcdtw, 
Swallow-tailed  Hawk.    Tls. 


136 


StJBKINGDOM    VERTEBKATA. 


Mg.  229. 


cycloid,  which  is  a  line  of  swifter  descent  than  a  perpendic- 
ular, and  also  easier  for  alighting. 
To  give  a  more  powerful  hold  on  the 
air  when  carrying  its  prey  to  its 
eyrie,  its  wings  are  hollow  on  the 
under  side. 

Cathartidae.*  —  The  American 
Vultures  being  designed  in  the  econ- 
omy of  nature  to  dispose  of  carrion, 
lack  the  powerful  talons  of  the 
Falcons,  but  possess  a  strong  beak 
for  dismembering  the  dead  bodies  on 
which  they  feed.  If  one  soaring  aloft 
detects  with  its  telescopic  eye  a  car- 
cass, the  change  of  its  flight  from  a 
Haiiaetus  leucocephdius.  circular  sweep  to  a  right  line  of 
White-headed  Eagle.  A.  descent  is  probably  noticed  by  many 

others  too  distant  to  be  seen  by  the  human  eye,  and  thus  a 
large  flock  quickly  gathers  from  all  quarters  of  the  heavens,  f 
The  head  and  neck  are  bare  of  feathers,  to  enable  them  to  be 
plunged  deeply  into  a  carcass.  As  the  naked  skin,  however, 
would  suffer  in  the  cold  upper 
air,  the  base  of  the  neck  is 
encircled  with  a  ruff  of  soft 
down,  arising  from  a  loose 
fold,  into  which  the  neck  and 
most  of  the  head  can  be  with- 
drawn, while  the  bird  remains 


Fig.  230. 


*  Recent  researches  prove  the  Vultures 
of  the  Old  and  New  World  so  osteologi- 
cally  different  as  to  require  the  latter  to  he 
placed  in  a  separate  family,  and  the  for- 
mer to  he  degraded  to  the  rank  of  a  suh- 
family  of  the  Falconidse,  the  Vulturinse. 

t  Both  sight  and  smell  seem  to  aid 
them  in  the  pursuit  of  their  food.  The 
latter  sense  is  remarkahly  keen,  and  they 
have  heen  seen  to  descend  directly  from 
a  great  height  in  the  air  to  putrefying  food 
that  was  concealed  from  their  vision. 


Ehynogryphus  aura, 
Turkey  Buzzard.    , 


CLASS    AVES:     ORDER    COLUMB^J. 


137 


in  a  semi-torpid  state  Fiff- 

during  the  digestion 
of  its  over-gorged 
meal. 

To  this  family  be- 
long the  California 
Vulture  (Pseudogry- 
phus  californianus), 
the  Black  Vulture 
(Catharista  atriita\ 
the  Turkey  Buzzard 
(Rhynogryphus  aura) 
of  the  warmer  regions 
of  America,  and  the  . 
Condor  of  the  Andes. 
The  last  is  typical  of 
the  family,  and  in 

Size  excels  all   except  Sarcorhamphus  gryphus,  Condor. 

the  California  Vulture.  Its  alar  extent  is  about  ten  feet.* 
It  will  frequently  soar  for  half  an  hour  without  once  flapping 
its  wings;  but  how  it  is  accomplished  has  not  been  satisfac- 
torily explained.  To  man,  the  Condor  is  inoffensive,  nor 
does  it  often  attack  living  prey. 


ORDER     COLUMB^E. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Pigeons  f  have  the  bill 
shorter  than  the  head,  with  the  nostrils  imbedded  in  soft 
skin ;  and  the  hind  toe  on  a  level  with  the  others.  Both 
male  and  female  disgorge  into  the  mouths  of  the  young  a 
milky  substance,  and,  after  a  few  days,  macerated  grain. 

Columbidae.— The  Wild  or  Passenger  Pigeon  is  common 
to  all  parts  of  North  America.  It  frequently  collects  in  such 

*  The  exaggerated  accounts  g*  the  earlier  writers  are  to  be  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  the  Condor,  when  soaring  at  no  great  height  from  the  ground,  seems  much 
larger. 

t  All  the  domestic  varieties,  now  numbering  nearly  forty,  are  believed  to  have 
sprung  from  the  Rock  Dove  (Columba  livid)  of  Europe  and  Asia. 


138 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


Fig.  232. 


numbers  as  to  load  with  nests  every  tree  in  a  forest  forty 

miles  long.  Each  nest 
contain^  two  eggs,  hatch- 
ing usually  a  male  and 
female,  which  are  believed 
to  pair  at  maturity.  The 
male  often  makes  daily 
excursions  of  a  hundred 
miles  to  procure  food.* 
Many  millions  being  thus 
congregated,  it  is  astonish- 
ing how  each  bird  in  re- 
turning  should  go  straight 

t() 


Ectopistes  migratoria, 

Passenger  Pigeon.    >-. 


ORDER     GALLING. 

General  Charaeteristics.  —  This  order  includes  the 
hen-like  birds.  They  generally  have  feeble  powers  of  flight, 

*  Their  speed  is  very  great.  Pigeons  have  been  killed  near  New  York  with  their 
crops  full  of  rice,  which  must  have  been  eaten  in  the  plantations  of  Georgia  and 
Carolina,  six  or  seven  hundred  miles  distant.  As  they  would  digest  grain  in  twelve 
hours,  they  must  have  traveled  a  mile  per  minute.  They  fly  in  enormous  columns 
miles  in  length  and  width.  It  is  estimated  that  such  a  flock  would  require  millions  of 
bushels  of  food  each  day.  Andubon  gives  a  vivid  description  of  a  resting-place  on 
Green  River,  Kentucky.  He  says :  "  The  noise  which  they  made  reminded  me  of  a 
strong  sea-breeze  amongst  the  cordage  of  a  ship.  When  they  passed  above  my  head 
I  felt  a  current  of  air  which  astonished  me.  Thousands  were  already  struck  down 
by  men  armed  with  poles,  but  they  continued  to  arrive  without  intermission.  Fires 
were  lighted.  The  birds  precipitated  themselves  in  masses,  and  pitched  where  they 
could,  one  upon  the  other,  in  large  heaps  like  barrels.  Then  the  branches  gave  way 
under  the  weight,  cracked  and  fell,  bringing  to  the  ground  and  crushing  the  closely- 
packed  flocks,  which  covered  every  part  of  the  trees.  It  was  a  scene  cf  tumult  and 
confusion.  In  vain  I  tried  to  speak,  or  even  to  call  the  persons  nearest  to  me.  It 
was  with  difficulty  that  I  could  hear  the  guns  fire,  and  I  only  perceived  the  men  had 
fired  by  seeing  them  reload  their  arms.  Pigeons  continued  to  come,  and  it  was  past 
midnight  before  I  noticed  any  diminution.  The  uproar  continued  all  night.  At  last 
the  day  approached,  the  noise  began  to  abate  a  little,  and  long  before  we  could  dis- 
tinguish objects  the  pigeons  commenced  to  fltart,  and  at  sunrise  all  that  could  fly 
had  disappeared.  Now  it  was  the  wolves'  turn,  the  howls  of  which  saluted  our  ears. 
Foxes,  lynxes,  cougars,  bears,  rats,  opossums,  and  martens,  bounding,  running, 
climbing,  pressed  to  the  quarry,  whilst  eagles  and  falcons  of  different  species  flew 
down  from  the  air  to  take  their  part  of  such  rich  booty.  The  sportsmen  then,  in 
their  turn,  entered  into  the  midst  of  the  dead,  the  dying,  and  the  wounded.  The 
pigeons  were  piled  in  heaps,  each  took  what  he  wished,  and  the  pigs  were  left  to 
satiate  themselves  on  the  remainder." 


CLASS    AVES  :     ORDER    GALLING.  139 

characterized  by  a  whirring  sound.  To  aid  them  in  scratch- 
ing, the  hind  toe  is  elevated.  Their  food  is  first  softened  in 
a  crop>  then  mingled  with  the  drink  in  a  second  expansion 
of  the  gullet,  and  lastly  ground  in  the  gizzard.*  To  elude 

Fig.  233. 


\ 

Argus  giganttus,  Argus  Pheasant.    TV 

the  sharp  eye  of  their  enemies,  the  Kaptores,  they  squat  upon 
the  ground  and  lie  quiet — their  mimicry  corresponding  to 
the  herbage  they  frequent.  They  are  mostly  polygamous, 

*  This  is  lined  with  hard  cartilage,  and  is  so  strong  and  muscular  as  to  pulverize 
glass  and  metals.  The  trituration  of  the  food  may  be  distinctly  heard  by  standing 
beside  fowls  on  their  roost  at  night. 


140 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBKATA. 


feeding  in  flocks  of  ten  or  twelve  females  to  one  male.  As 

the  female  leaves  her  nest, 
her  cackling  is  answered 
by  the  male,  and  thus  she 
is  guided  to  her  com- 
panions. 

Phasianidse.— The 
Pheasant  is  indigenous  to 
Asia,  but  some  species 
have  become  naturalized 
in  the  parks  of  European 
castles.  The  Argus  has 
its  secondaries,  which  are 
three  times  the  length  of 
the  primaries,  ornament- 
ed wiRf**  rows  of  richly- 
tinted  "eyes."  Its  tail 
has  two  feathers,  so  long 
that,  while  the  bird  is 
only  the  size  of  a  common 
fowl,  its  extreme  length  is 
five  feet. 

Pavonidae. — The  Pea- 
cock's tail-  coverts  are  dec- 
orated with  "  eyes/'  The 
true  tail-feathers  are 
short,  un  variegated,  and 
serve  only  as  a  support 
for  the  so-called  "tail." 

Numididae. —  The 
Guinea-fowl  came  from 
Africa.  Its  harsh,  ring- 
ing cry  of  camaC)  camac, 
makes  the  bird  very  useful 
in  the  poultry  yard  as  a 
protection  from  crows  and 

Nurmda  mdeagris,  Guinea-fowl.       .  hawks. 


Paw  cristatus,  Peacock. 
Fig.  235. 


CLASS  AYES:    ORDER 


Meleagridse.—  The   Turkey  is  indigenous  to  America. 
There  is  but  one  genus  (Meleagris),  with  two  species.     One 
of  these  is  the  M.  ocelldta  of  Honduras,  whose  tail  is  enam-^ 
elled  with  blue  "eyes,"  each  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  yellow" 
and  purple.    The  other  species  has  two  varieties,  the  M.  gal- 
lopavo  and  M.  mexicana.    The  latter  is  the  one  from  which 


Ma. 


Meleagris  gattopavo,  Turkey. 


the  Domestic  Turkey  sprung.  The  Wild  Turkey  nests  in 
some  secluded  spot,  which  it  guards  jealously,  seldom 
approaching  it  twice  by  the  same  path,  and  luring  the 
intruder  away  by  various  wiles.  As  soon  as  the  young  are 
hatched,  the  female  takes  them  under  her  entire  care,  leading 
them  long  distances  for  food,  and  carefully  avoiding  marshes 
until  her  brood  have  exchanged  their  down  for  feathers 
impervious  to  water.* 

Tetraonidse. — The  Grouse  is  distinguished  by  having  the 

*  Turkeys  are  often  captured  in  the  following  manner :  A  pen  of  logs  is  raised 
about  four  feet  high.  At  one  point  an  entrance  is  dug  underneath  an^  corn  sprinkled 
both  without  and  within.  The  Turkeys  greedily  picking  this  up  enter  the  pen. 
Once  entrapped,  they  vainly  seek  with  elevated  head  to  escape  between  the  logs,  but 
never  think  of  stooping  down  to  pass  out  where  they  entered. 


142 


SUBKIKGDOM    VEBTEBEATA. 


237. 


tarsi  and  the  nasal  groove    partly   feathered.*    Not  being 

migratory,  it  is  hunted  during  the 
colder  months.  In  the  spring,  it 
drums  upon  a  log  with  its  wings, 
closely  imitating  distant  thunder. 
When  the  young  are  hatched,  they 
follow  the  mother,  and  the  males 
joining  the  flock,  all  remain  to- 
gether during  the  winter,  after 
which  they  separate,  the  young 
selecting  their  own  homes,  not  far 
from  their  parents. 

Perdicidae.t  —  The  Partridge  is 
not  migratory,  but  passes  the  win- 
ter  in  swamps.    Unlike  the  Grouse, 
Ruffed  Grouse,  j.  it  js  monogamous,  the  young  re- 

maining with  their  parents  till  spring,  and  then  pairing.    At 

Fig.  238. 


Perdlx  dnerta.  Common  Partridge,  England. 


*  The  Ruffed  Grouse  is  called  Partridge  in  New  England  and  the  West,  and 
Pheasant  in  the  Middle  States. 

t  In  New  England  the  Perdicidse  are  called  Quails.    The  trua  quail  (Coturnfa 


CLASS    AVES:     ORDEK    BBEVIPENNES.  143 

Fig.  239.  Fig.  ZW. 


Ortyx  virginianus,  Coturnlx  commUnis, 

Bob-white  or  Quail.    J.  European  Quail. 

night,  the  whole  covey  roost  on  the  ground  in  a  close  circle, 
their  heads  directed  outward.* 


ORDER     BREVIPENNES. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Short-winged  birds  are 
confined  to  the  earth,  and  hence  the  wonderful  muscular 
power  in  the  fore  limbs  of  other  birds  is  in  them  transferred 
to  the  hind  limbs.  They  have  two  or  three  toes,  terminating 
in  strong  claws.  The  breast-bone  is  flat,  and  the  pelvic 
bones  are  united  in  front. 

DDCV/IDCMMCC     5    NOSTRILS  AT  THE  BASE  OP  THE  BILL.  StruthionidSB,  Ostrich. 

BKtYIKtNINtb.  $  „  „      «    BND  OF  A  LONG  BILL.  Apterygidse,  Apteryx. 

Strnthionidse.— The  Ostrich  is  the  largest  living  bird. 
Its  bill  is  broad,  its  long  tarsi  are  covered  with  scales,  and 
large  femur  bones  with  voluminous  muscles. 

The  African  Ostrich  stands  eight  to  ten  feet  high,  and  is 
the  swiftest-footed  of  all  animals. f  It  is  remarkable  chiefly 

wmmunis)  is  found  in  the  Old  World  and  is  migratory  in  habit,  leaving  Africa  in  the 
spring  and  returning  from  Europe  in  the  autumn.  Passing  the  Mediterranean  in 
immense  flocks,  millions  are  captured  as  they  alight  upon  the  rocky  islands. 

*  To  this  order  belongs  the  Domestic  Fowl  (Oallus  banlava).  The  original  stock, 
however,  has  been  so  modified  by  cultivation  for  thousands  of  years,  that  it  cannot 
be  identified  though  it  is  generally  supposed  to  have  come  from  India. 

t  The  Ostrich  will  run  thirty  miles  per  hour.  It  is  captured  by  the  Arabs  on 
their  fleet  steeds  only  after  a  chase  of  a  day  or  two,  by  several  relays  of  horses  and 


144 


SUBKINGDOM    VEKTEBKATA. 


for  its  beautiful  plumes,  which  have  been  prized  as  an  adorn 
ment  from  time  immemorial. 


Struthw  camelus,  African  Ostrich. 


riders,  and  by  pursuing  in  a  straight  line  while  the  bird  runs  in  a  curve.  One  male 
accompanies  two  to  six  females  who  lay  in  one  nest.  The  hens  take  turns  in  sitting 
during  the  day,  thus  enabling  the  others  to  travel  the  long  distances  necessary  to  get 
rood  in  that  desert  country,  without  leaving  the  nest  uncovered.  The  male  assumes 
'he  task  of  incubation  at  night  when  his  superior  strength  is  needed  to  drive  oft 
prowling  animals,  which  are  sometimes  found  lying  dead  near  the  nest,  killed  by  its 
powerful  kick.  As  the  young  cannot  for  some  time  go  far,  or  digest  the  hard  food 
of  the  old  ones,  the  females  continue  to  lay  extra  eggs  for  their  nourishment.  In 
this  entire  system  of  incubation  one  can  but  see  the  nice  planning  of  a  Creator, 
fruitful  in  methods  for  meeting  an  end  by  varied  means.— An  Ostrich  egg  is  equal  to 
two  dozen  of  those  of  the  domestic  hen.  It  is  cooked  by  placing  one  end  in  the  hot 
ashes  and  making  a  small  orifice  in  the  other,  stirring  the  contents  with  a  bit  of 
stick  till  the  omelette  is  roasted.— In  Cape  Colony  there  are  now  Ostrich-farms 
where  these  birds  are  reared  for  their  plumes,  which  are  plucked  every  eight  months. 


CLASS    AVESI     ORDER    LIMICOLJS. 


145 


The  South  American  Ostrich  *  is  only  about  half  as  large 
as  the  African,  but  is  more  completely  covered  with  feathers. 
It  has  three  toes  instead  of  two,  and  a  larger  hooked-spur  on 
the  end  of  the  wings. 

Mg.  21,3. 
Mg. 


Rhea  darwimi,  Patagonian  Ostrich 


Apterygidse. — The  Apteryx  of  New  Zealand  has  stumps 
of  wings  and  no  tail.  Its  feathers  look  like  fur.  For  incu- 
bation it  digs  deep  holes  in  the  ground,  into  which  it  flees 
when  pursued — characteristics  linking  it  to  the  lowest  order 
of  mammals. 

ORDER     LIMICOL./E.t 

General  Characteristics. — The  Plover-snipes  have  a 
long  slender  beak,  .without  hard-cutting  edges,  and  wholly 
or  in  great  part  membranous.  Their  narrow  nostrils  are 
placed  low  down,  and  entirely  surrounded  with  soft  skin. 

Charadriidse.— The  Plovers  frequent  commons  and  un- 
sheltered shores,  running  around  in  search  of  insects,  slugs, 

*  It  is  also  polygamous,  the  females  laying  their  eggs  scattered  at  random,  which 
the  male  collects  into  a  nest,  and  then  broods,  hatches,  and  even  tends  the 
young. 

t  The  old  order  GrallatOres  (waders)  is  now  classed  as  three  distinct  orders,  viz : 
LimicOlae,  HerodiOnes,  and  Alectorldes, 


14:5" 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


Fig.  244. 


Charadrius  virginicus.  Gold  c  a  Plover. 


Fig.  245. 


Hcema&pus  palliatus,  Oyster-catcher. 
Fig.  sis. 


worms,  etc.  The  Golden 
Plover  inhabits  all  the 
continent  of  America. 

Kaexnatopodidae. — 
The  Oyster-catcher  of 
the  Atlantic  coast  has  a 
>M11,  long,  abrupt,  and 
chisel-like,  adapted  to 
opening  the  shells  of 
bivalve  mollusks  and 
detaching  limpets  from 
the  rocks. 
E,  e  c  11  r  v  irostridae. — 
The  Avocet  possesses  a  re- 
curved, flattened  bill,  use- 
ful for  scooping  up  small 
fish  and  aquatic  insects,  as 
it  sweeps  the  narrow  runs, 
with  a  movement  like  that 
of  a  mower  swinging  a 
scythe. 

S  c  o  1  o  p  a  c  idae.— The 
Snipes  have  long,  grooved, 
flexible  bills,  well  supplied 
with  nerves  to  the  end, 

Fig.  247. 


PhiloKSla  minor,  Woodcock.    J. 


Recurwrostra  americana,  AvOcet 


CLASS    AVES:     ORDER    HERODIOtfES.  14? 

that  in  probing  deep  into  the  bogs  and  moist  turf,  they  may 
detect  the  worms  and  larvae.  Their  upper  feathers  mimic 
well  the  herbage  beneath  them,  and  their  eyes  are  placed  so 
far  back,  that,  like  the  Giraffe,  their  range  of  vision  meets 
behind  the  head. 

ORDER     HERODIONES. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Herons,  Storks,  Ibises, 
etc.,  are  generally  of  large  size,  with  long,  S-bent  necks,  and 
tufts  of  matted  feathers  (powder-down)  on  both  sides  of  the 
breast  and  rump.  In  flying,  they  double  their  neck  and 
stretch  back  their  legs;  The  latter  serve  as  a  rudder,  their 
short  tail  being  unfitted  for  this  office. 

Ciconiidae. — The  White  Stork  of  Europe  (see  Fig.  253)  is 
exceedingly  useful,  feeding  upon  garbage  and  noxious  crea- 
tures. It  is  easily  tamed,  and  its  sagacity  is  marvellous.  * 

Plataleidae.— The 
Roseate  Spoonbill  of  the 
South  is  the  only  rep- 
resentative of  this  fam- 
ily in  the  United  States. 
It    breeds    the    second 
year,  but  does  not  attain 
its  perfect  plumage  un- 
til  the  fourth  or  fifth. 
It  is  then   a  beautiful 
rose  color,  with  carmine 
wing  and    tail-coverts,         Ma^a  <W» Roseate  SpoonbilL  *• 
head  naked  with   golden -yellow  skin   shading   into   glossy 
black  around  the  top  of  the  neck,  and  with  patches  of  rich 
buff  on  each  side  of  the  breast  and  upper  part  of  the  tail. 

*  A  tame  stork  has  been  known  to  join  children  playing  hide  and  seek,  run  when 
touched  and  to  distinguish  the  child  whose  turn  it  was  to  pursue  the  rest  so  well  as 
to  be  on  its  guard  along  with  the  others.  The  Germans  and  Dutch  esteem  it  a  good 
omen  when  a  stork  builds  its  coarse  nest  of  sticks  on  their  house-top.  Innumerable 
stories  are  current  among  different  nations,  ascribing  to  the  stork  gratitude,  chastity, 
parental  affection,  conjugal  fidelity  and  filial  piety.  In  the  Tyrol,  for  example,  a 
male  stork  refused  to  migrate,  and  passed  several  winters  with  his  mate,  who,  being 
wounded,  could  not  fly. 


148 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


Ardeidae. — The  Great  Blue  Heron  has  a  sharply-pointed, 
stout,  conical-shaped  bill,  in  striking  contrast  with  that  of 
the  Spoonbill,  though  they  associate  together,  and  oft^n  nest 
upon  the  same  tree. 

Fig.  2k9. 


ArdZa  herocftas,  Great  Blue  Heron. 


Tantalus  loculator,  Wood  Ibis. 


Tantalidse. — The  Ibis  inhabits  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
some  specjes  migrate  so  irregularly  as  to  be  nowhere  at  home. 
Its  long,  arcuate  bill  is  adapted  to  rooting  in  the  mud  in 
search  of  worms  and  small  insects.*  The  Wood  Ibis  has  a 
strong  bill,  with  which  it  strikes  the  fish,  frogs,  young  alli- 
gators, and  snakes  that  come  to  the  surface  on  being  dis- 
turbed by  the  bird's  dancing  about  in  the  water. f 

*  The  Sacred  Ibis  (/.  religidsa)  was  venerated  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  probably 
because  it  rid  them  of  serpents,  the  skins  and  scales  of  which  have  been  found  in  the 
Ibis  mummies.  Some  think,  however,  that  the  reason  of  this  worship  was  merely 
because  the  coming  of  the  bird  was  simultaneous  with  the  annual  overflow  of  the 
Nile,  and  hence  symbolical  of  fertility.  Whoever  killed  an  Ibis  was  mobbed  while 
the  dead  bird  was  embalmed.  The  Ibis  multiplied  in  consequence  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  impede  travel  in  the  streets.  The  affection  of  the  bird  for  Egypt  was  so  great 
that,  according  to  Acteon,  when  taken  away  it  died  of  home-sickness.  But  now, 
betng  killed  and  eaten  by  the  modern  inhabitants,  who  have  abandoned  the  faith  of 
their  fathers,  it  has  almost  deserted  the  country.— (Figuier.) 

t  When  a  sufficient  number  of  its  victims  lies  floating  around,  it  gorges  itself, 
often  leaving  many  untouched,  and  then,  stationed  on  the  margin  of  the  stream  with 
its  breast  turned  towards  the  sun,  patiently  awaits  the  process  of  digestion. 


CLASS    AVESI     ORDER    ALECTORIDES. 


149 


ORDER    ALECTORIDES. 

Gruidae. — The  Whooping  Crane  (see  Fig.  253)  is  princi- 
pally confined  to  the  Mississippi  Valley.    It  seeks  its  food  in 

Mg.  251. 


Convoluted  Trachea  of  the  Crane. 

the  wild  uplands,  feeding  upon  insects  and  plants.  About 
thirteen  inches  of  the  windpipe  are  twisted  up  in  a  hollow  of 
the  breast-bone,  thus  giving  to 
the  voice  a  sonorous,  trumpet-like 
tone. 

Ballidae.  —  The  Eails  have 
more  or  less  pervious  nostrils; 
long,  slender  toes;  a  compressed 
body  and  short  tail.  The  Vir- 
ginia Rail  *  is  a  type  of  the  genus 
Rallus,  which  contains  about 
twenty  species.  The  Purple  Gal- 
linule,  abundant  in  the  Southern, 
but  accidental  in  the  Northern 

*  Except  in  being  smaller  it  is  almost  iden- 
tical in  form  and  color  with  E.  elegans,  thus 

showing  the  value  of  size  as  a  specific  and  die-  Eattus  virginianus, 

tinctive  character.  Virginia  Bail.    £. 


150 


SUBKLNGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


, 


CLASS    AVES:     ORDER    LAMELLIROSTRES. 


151 


States,  has  a  rich  and  variegated  plumage.  It  seeks  its  food 
of  larvae,  weeds,  and  grains,  upon  the  surface  of  the  water 
only,  its  compressed  body  and  large  feet  enabling  it  to  thread 
its  way  among  aquatic  stems  and  to  walk  upon  floating 


Fig. 


Fig.  255. 


Gallinnia  martimca,  Purple  Gallinule. 


FuTica,  americana,  Coot.    £. 


plants.  The  Coot,  with  its  lobed  feet,  is  adapted  to  a  more 
exclusively  aquatic  life,  and  hence,  swimming  and  diving 
with  great  address,  it  is  seldom  seen  on  the  land. 


ORDER     LAMELLIROSTRES.* 

General  Characteristics.— The  Geese,  Ducks,  etc.,  have 
palmate  feet  and  lamellate  bills,  with  corresponding  laciniate 
processes  on  the  sides  of  a  fleshy  tongue,  ending  in  a  horny  tip. 


LAMELLIROSTRES. 


LEGS  VERY  I 

LONG,    i 

LEGS  SHORT, 


TIBIA  MOSTLY  BARE. 


TIBIA  FEATHERED. 


Phoenicopteridje,    Flamingo. 
Anatidse,  Duck. 


Phoenicopteridae.— The  Flamingo,]  when  feeding,  lays 
the  upper  part  of  its  bill  next  the  ground,  and  with  its  feet 
stirs  up  the  mud  for  small  fish,  insects,  and  seeds,  which  it 

*  The  old  order  Natatores  (swimmers)  has  been  broken  tip  by  recent  ornitholo- 
gists into  five  distinct  orders,  viz:  Lamellirostres,  SteganopBdes,  Longipennes, 
Pygopodes  and  Sphenisci. 

t  The  flamingo,  with  its  heron-like  legs  but  full-webbed  toes,  eases  the  transition 
from  the  waders  to  the  swimmers.  So  many  of  its  characteristics  are  common  to 
both,  that  it  has  been  tossed  back  and  forth  from  the  days  of  Linnaeus  to  the  present, 
nor  is  it  certain  where  it  will  be  allowed  to  rest. 


152 


SUBKI^GDOM    VERTEBBATA. 


secures  by  straining  through  its  lamellae*    Its  plumage  is  a 

deep  scarlet  on  the  back, 
and  roseate  on  the  wings. 
It  builds  a  hillock  of  mud 
as  high  as  its  body,  and 
on  the  top  makes  its  nest 
and  lays  its  eggs,  its  long 
legs  hanging  down  on 
each  side. 

Anatidae.— The  Ducks 
have  the  legs  short,  with 
the  hind  toe  separate,  and 
the  bill  covered  with  soft, 
sensitive  skin,  and  highly 
lamellated,  to  filter  the 
ooze  in  which  they  feed. 
Flamingo.  A.  They  are  ciose.feathered, 

and  keep  the  plumage  well  oiled,  so  as  to  dive  without  get- 
ting wet. 

The  Swan's\  neck, 
unlike  the  Flamin- 
go's, is  in  no  propor- 
tion to  the  length  of 
its  legs,  but  is  adapt- 
ed to  a  swimmer 
that  never  dives,  yet 
feeds  upon  aquatic 
roots.  The  stroke 
of  its  wing  is  power- 
ful enough  to  frac-  Cygnus  buccinator^  Trumpeter  Swan. 


Mg. 


*  Its  tongue  is  very  fleshy,  and,  during  the  days  of  Rome's  extravagance,  her 
gluttons  were  wont  to  parade  a  dish  composed  of  flamingoes1  tongues. 

t  The  two  species  of  Swans  in  America  are  easily  distinguished,  the  Cygnus  buc- 
cinator not  having  the  orange  or  yellowish  spot  in  front  of  the  eye  which  is  so  char- 
acteristic of  C.  americanus. 

$  The  voice  of  C.  buccinator  is  remarkably  raucous  in  comparison  with  that  of 
C.  americanus,  though  each  has  the  convolution  of  the  trachea  in  the  keel  of  the 
sternum,  like  that  of  the  whooping-crane. 


CLASS    AVESI     ORDER    LAMELLIROSTRES.  153 

Fig.  258. 


1.  Larus  atricilla,  Laughing  Gull. 


2.  Cygnus  olor.  Mute  Swan. 


Fig.  259. 


ture  a  man's  leg.*     Swans  fly  high  in  their  migration,  to 
keep  "the  sky"  of  rapacious  birds. 
They  are  said  to  live  a  hundred 
years. 

The  Canada  Goose  in  the  spring 
migrates  in  great  numbers  to  the 
north  to  breed,  and  returns  to  the 
tropics  in  the  autumn.  It  always 
flies  in  flocks,  having  the  form  of 
an  acute  angle,  the  leader  falling 
back  when  fatigued,  and  the  next 
one  taking  its  place.  The  sexes 
are  distinguished  by  the  greater 
length  of  the  male's  neck.  They 
are  monogamous,  but  are  supposed 
to  pair  anew  every  spring. 


*  This  is  explained  by  its  swiftness,  on  the 
mechanical  principle  that  the  effect  increases 
as  the  square  of  the  velocity 


Bermcla  canadensis, 
Canada  or  Wild  Goose. 


154 


SUBKIKGDOM    TEBTEBBATA. 


Fig.  260. 


Aix  sponsa, 
Wood  or  Summer  Duck.    t>c. 

Arctic  regions,  occasionally 
coasts.*  The  dark,  rock- 
colored  hue  of  the  females 
is  an  excellent  mimicry, 
and  they  will  remain  on 
the  nest  till  trodden  upon 
The  Goosander^  has  a 
narrow,  cylindrical  bill, 
with  a  saw-like  margin, 
the  teeth  pointing  back- 
ward, and  the  tip  armed 
with  a  hooked  nail.  It 
swims  wholly  submerged, 
seizing  fish,  whose  very 
struggles  force  them  more 
readily  into  the  gullet  of 
their  captor.  J 

*  It  breeds  upon  the  cliffs,  and  the  •« 
down  with  which  it  lines  its  nest 
has  great  commercial  value.    It  is 
obtained  by  robbing  it  two  or  three 
times  a  season,  the  male  at  last  sup- 
plying the  deficiency  from  his  own    7 
breast. 

t  This  is  one  of  the  species  of 
Ducks  popularly  called  Mergansers 
or  Sheldrakes. 

$  Sometimes  the  fish  is  so  long 


The  Wood  Duck  nests  in  hol- 
low trees,  sometimes  twenty  feet 
above  the  ground,  and  six  feet 
below  the  opening.  For  lining, 
it  uses  down  from  its  own  breast. 
As  soon  as  the  whole  brood  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  are  hatched,  the 
mother  takes  them  by  the  wing 
or  back  of  the  neck,  and  deposit- 
ing them  on  the  ground,  hastens 
with  them  to  the  water. 

The  Eider  Duck  inhabits  the 
migrating  to  the  middle  Atlantic 

Fig.  mi. 


Somatena  mollis&ma,  Eider  Duck.    r\ 
Fig.  262. 


Merffus  americanus,  Goosander.    T'T. 


CLASS    AVES  :     ORDER    STEGANOPODES.  155 


ORDER     STEGANOPODES. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Foot-covered  birds  are 
readily  recognized  by  the  totipalmate  feet  and  Unfeathered 
gular  pouch — a  sac  beneath  the  bill  sometimes  holding  a 
gallon,  and  used  for  a  temporary  larder. 

Pelecanidae. — The  White  Pelican*  swims  upon  the  sur- 
face, darting  down  its  long  bill  at  the  fish  swimming  near, 
till  its  pouch  is  filled,  when  it  retires  to  the  sand-banks  and 
stands  with  its  fellows  in  long  rows,  Mff 

while  the  contents  of  the  sac  gradually 
pass  into  the  stomach,  as  the  process 
of  digestion  goes  on. 

The  Brown  Pelican  flies  ten  to 
twenty  feet  above  the  surface,  watch- 
ing the  shoals  of  fish  beneath,  till  a 
chance  offers,  when  it  falls  flatwise, 
often  with  a  force  that  immerses  the 
whole  body,f  scooping  up  one  or  more 
with  its  pouch.  Then  rising,  it  re- 
peats the  operation  as  often  as  the 
capacity  of  its  pocket  will  permit. 

G-raculidae . — The  Cormorant { 
pursues  its  prey  under  the  water,  using  >j 
its  wings  to  increase  its  speed.     It  is 

„      ,      °        ,       ,  •.          i  11  Pelecanus  fuscus, 

fond  of  eels,  but  often  has  a  hard        Brown  Pelican.  Tv. 

battle  to  keep  one  down,  sometimes 

struggling  for  half  an  hour,  and  then  taking  it  to  a  rock  and 

that  the  tail  projects  and  it  can  be  introduced  fully  into  the  stomach  only  after  the 
head  has  been  digested. 

*  The  White  Pelican  (P.  erythrorhynchus)  ranges  from  Florida  to  the  northwest 
coast.  The  Brown  Pelican  (P.fuscus)  from  the  coast  of  Nbrth  Carolina  around  to 
California.  The  former  is  remarkable  for  a  horny  excrescence  on  the  top  of  the 
upper  mandible. 

t  This  dash  upon  the  water  would  be  fatal  to  itself  if  it  were  not  for  a  thick  layer 
of  air-cells  just  beneath  the  skin,  .which  breaks  the  force  of  the  blow. 

\  Cormorants  are  abundant  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  by  the  Chinese  are 
tamed  and  used  for  fishing,  by  placing  a  ring  at  the  base  of  the  neck  to  prevent  the 
bird  from  swallowing  the  game. 


156  SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 

thrashing  it  till  disabled.     Its  iris  is  bright  green,  and  its 
plumage  well  oiled  and  glossy. 


Fig. 


Crradtlus  carbo,  Cormorant.    TJ,. 

Plotidae.— The    Snake-bird  is 
found  throughout   our  Southern  piotus  anhinga, 

Coasts.      It  is  adapted   to  Catching      Snake  Bird  or  Water  Turkey.    ,',. 

its  prey  under  water,  either  by  impaling  upon  its  sharp, 
pointed  beak,  or  by  seizing  between  its  serrated  mandibles. 
Its  favorite  position  is  just  above  the  water,  into  which  it 
drops  head  first,  so  quietly  as  to  make  scarcely  a  ripple, 
Swimming  beneath  till  it  finds  tufts  of  reeds,  perhaps  a 
thousand  feet  away,  it  shows  at  the  surface  only  its  bill  and 
eyes,  as  it  reconnoitres  the  neighborhood.  The  crimped  tail- 
feathers  serve  as  a  rudder,  but  the  wings  are  not  used  in 


swimming.* 


ORDER     LONGIPENNES. 


General  Characteristics. — The  Long- winged  birds  are 
distinguished  by  the  size  of  their  pointed  wings  and  their 
palmate  feet,  with  free,  elevated  hind  toe.  *  Generally 
oceanic,  they  rest  upon  the  water,  but  do  not  dive. 

LONGIPENNES. 


*  Even  before  the  young  leave  the  nest  a  parasitic  worm  is  found  in  their 
stomach,  which  works  its  way  to  the  hrain,  and  there  thrives  in  clusters  of  ten  or 


CLASS    AVES:     OEDEE    LOKGIPENKES. 


157 


Laridse.  —  The  Gulls 
are  cosmopolitan  and  the 
true  scavengers  of  the 
ocean.  The  Great  Black- 
lack  is  typical  of  those 
which  visit  the  Atlantic 
coast.  It  feeds  upon  fish, 
and  sometimes  upon  small 
birds  or  quadrupeds.  The 
Skua  is  remarkable  for  its 

.  T  V    •  1  1  1  1  J 

stout,  cered  bill,   hooked 

upper  mandible,  and  pirat- 

ical habits.    Like  the  White-headed  Eagle  among  the  Fish- 

hawks,  it  pursues  birds  of  its  own  family,  and  forces  them 


Fig. 


Stercoranus  parasi.twis,  Arctic  Skua. 


Sterna  wilsoni,  Wilson's  Tern.    j. 


to  give  up  their  booty  ; 
and  sweeping  down  with 
the  velocity  of  an  ayrow, 
catches  it  before  reaching 
the  water.  The  Tern  has 
long,  pointed  wings,  a 
forked  tail,  and  slender, 
straight  bill.  The  grace- 
ful evolutions  of  this 
"  Swallow  of  the  Sea,"  as 
it  skims  along  the  sur- 
face, are  a  perpetual  de- 
light to  the  observer. 
The  Scissors-Mi  has  its 
long,  lower  mandible  com- 
pressed laterally  to  the 
shape  and  sharpness  of  a 
knife-blade,*  while  it  shuts 
into  the  grooved  edge  of 

more.  Nine-tenths  of  adult  speci- 
mens are  thus  infested,  and  yet  are 
in  apparently  good  health. 

*  This  cultrate  edge  is  specially 
useful  in  cutting  off  the  contractor 


158 


SUBKINGDOM    VEKTEBEATA. 

Fig.  269. 


Rhyncfiops  nlgra,  Scissors-bill.    J. 


Fig.  270. 


the  short  upper  one,  like  a  razor  into  its  handle.    Darting 

swiftly*  along,  cutting 
the  water  with  its  lower 
mandible,  small  fishes 
struck  by  it  slide  upward 
to  the  throat,  and  are  im- 
mediately swallowed. 

Procellariidae.  —  The 
Albatross  and  Petrel  are 
characterized  by  a  hooked 
bill  and  nostrils  united  in 
a  double-barrelled  tube. 
The  Common  Albatross  is 

DiomeMa  exulans,  Wandering  Albatross.    TV     ftie  ]argest  sea-bird,  hav- 

ing an  expanse  of  ten  to  fifteen  feet.     Eeposing  on  the  sur- 

face of  the  water,  with  its  Fig  VJ1 

head  under  its  wing,  it  is 

often   found   a  thousand 

miles    from    land.     Once 

elevated  in  the  air,  it  sel- 

dom flaps  its  wings,  and 

muscle  of  the  oyster  and  otber  bi- 
valves which  the  scissors-bill  finds 
a  little  open  on  the  beach. 

*  In  the  swiftest  swallow  the  ex- 
pansion of  wing  is  twice  the  length 
of  the  body  ;  but  in  the  scissors-bill 
it  is  much  greater,  giving  corre- 
sponding increase  of  power. 


Thalassidromapelaglca,  Stormy  Petrel. 


CLASS    AVES:     ORDEK    PYGOPODES. 


yet  ascends  or  descends  apparently  without  an  effort.*  The 
Petrel,  sometimes  called  Mother  Carey's  Chicken,  is  espe- 
cially dreaded  by  sailors  as  the  harbinger  of  a  storm. \ 

ORDER     PYGOPODES. 

General  Characteristics.— The  "Rump-footed"  birds 
have  the  tibiae  buried  in  the  body  nearly  to  the  heel.  This 
prevents  walking,  but  favors  swimming.  Their  feet  are 
lobate  or  palmate,  and  their  plumage  is  glossy. 


PYGOPODES. 


FEET  FOUR-TOED,  < 
PALMATE ;    '< 
FEET  FOUR  TOED, 

LOBATE ; 

FEET  THREE-TOED, 
PALMATE ;  i 


HALLCX    LOBATE 

CONNECTED. 
HALLUX    LOBATE 


Colymbidaj,       Loon. 
Podicipidae,        Grdte. 
nALLtJX  ABSENT.    AlcidaB,  Puffin  and  Auk. 


C  o  1  y  m  b  i  d  se  .—The  Loon,  or 
Great  Northern  Diver,  in  its  mature 
plumage  of  the  fourth  year,  has  few 
rivals  in  beauty.  Unable  to  move 
on  land,  except  by  a  constant  suc- 
cession of  awkward  tumbles,  in  the 
water  it  is  a  rare  swimmer  and 
diver.  Usually  floating  about  half 
submerged,  it  can  at  pleasure  settle 
down,  showing  only  its  head,  or  en- 
tirely sink  and,  escaping  with  great 
swiftness,  rise  far  distant.  { 

Podicipidae. — The  Grebe  §  has 
its  toes  partly  separate  and  flat,  the 


*  It  is  found  south  of  the  equator,  but  there  are  other  species  on  the  western 
coast  of  North  America. 

|  Gleaning  its  scanty  pittance  from  the  whirling  surges  of  the  sea  and  making 
its  appearance  in  great  numbers  just  before  a  storm,  seeking  food  and  shelter  in 
the  wake  of  the  vessel,  it  has  been  charged  with  creating  the  tempest.— Its  flesh  con- 
tains much  oil  and  the  natives  of  the  Faroe  islands  are  said  to  make  a  lamp  by 
drawing  a  wick  through  the  body  of  a  very  fat  one,  and  lighting  the  end  which  pro- 
jects from  the  beak. 

$  Its  cry  is  somewhat  like  the  howling  of  a  wolf,  and  is  thought  to  portend  rain. 

§  The  Grebe,  the  Auk  and  other  aquatic  birds  are  a  soured  of  revenue  to  the 
people  inhabiting  the  rocky  coasts,  which  they  frequent  in  multitudes.  The  nests 


160 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


edges  being  furnished  with  a  broad,  stiff  membrane,  making 
each  one  a  paddle.  On  the  land,  not  being  able  even  to 
tumble,  like  the  loon,  it  lies  down  and  pushes  itself  along  by 
its  feet.  In  the  water,  however,  it  is  perfectly  at  home,  diving 
and  using  its  wings  in  pursuit  of  fishes  and  aquatic  insects.* 


Fig.  273. 


Fig.  27k. 


Podiceps  cornUtus, 
Crested  Grebe.    T'5. 


Fratercula  arctica, 
Puffin,  Arctic  Kegions. 


Alcidse. — The  Puffin  and  Aukf  have  three  toes  fully 
webbed,  short  wings,  and  a  general  adaptation  to  a  purely 
aquatic  life.  On  the  land  they  sit  upright.  Most  species 
pluck  out  feathers  to  bring  their  eggs  into  immediate  contact 

are  often  built  In  the  ledges  of  Inaccessible  cliffs,  but  the  hardy  fowlers  suspend 
themselves  by  stout  ropes  from  the  summit  of  the  precipices,  and  by  swinging  to  and 
fro  reach  every  cranny  and  crevice  of  the  rock,  gathering  eggs  and  young  birds.  The 
calling  is  a  perilous  one.  Often  the  rope  chafes  against  a  projecting  edge  of  the 
rock,  or  vertigo  seizes  the  fowler,  or  he  reaches  too  far,  or  slips  from  his  footing. 
Th?  men  holding  the  rope  above  hear  a  shriek  of  despair,  and  then  all  is  still  save  the 
roar  of  the  remorseless  waves  below. 

*  Singularly  enough,  the  stomach  of  the  Grebe  always  contains  amass  of  its  own 
feathers,  involuntarily  swallowed,  probably  in  dressing  and  cleansing  its  plnmagp. — 
One  species  makes  a  floating  nest  upon  which  it  sits  and  hatches  its  progeny.  But 
if  disturbed,  it  plunges  one  foot  into  the  water  and,  employing  it  as  an  oar,  transports 
its  dwelling  from  the  threatened  danger. 

t  The  Great  Auk  (Alca  impennls)  is  said  to  have  become  extinct  within  the  last 
half-century.  A  high  value  is  placed  upon  the  few  specimens  which  have  been 
preserved,  there  being  now  known  only  thirt  -four  birds  and  forty-two  eggs.— • 
(Wood.) 


CLASS    AVES:     ORDER    SPHEJSTSCI. 


161 


with  their  flesh,  for  greater  warmth  during  incubation.  The 
Puffin  drives  rabbits  from  their  holes,  or  burrows  to  the 
depth  of  two  or  three  feet  to  lay  its  single  egg,  while  the  Auk 
deposits  its  two  eggs  upon  a  rocky  shelf  in  the  side  of  a  cliff 
overhanging  the  sea. 

ORDER     SPHENISCI. 

General  Characteristics.—  The  Penguin  is  half  fish  and 
half  bird  in  its  habits.  It  has  paddle- wings,  with  short,  rigid, 
scale-like  feathers,  disposed  in  regular  order,  and  is  incapable 
of  flight.  Its  bones  are  dense  and  heavy,  with  no  apertures  ior 

Fig.  275. 


Spheniscus  demersus,  Jackass  Penguin 


the  admission  of  air.  It  usually  keeps  near  the  land,  but 
seldom  visits  it,  except  for  nesting.  Whole  companies  then 
sit  erect  along  the  shore,  where  they  might  easily  be  "mis- 
taken for  a  party  of  choristers  with  surplices  and  black 
gowns."  The  Penguin  is  confined  to  the  colder  regions  of 
the  South,*  as  the  Puffin  and  Auk  are  to  those  of  the  North. 


*  The  Patagonian  Penguins  are  said  to  collect  in  such  numbers  at  breeding-places 
as  to  cover  thirty  or  forty  acres.    The  ground  is  laid  out  in  squares  for  their  nests, 


162  SUBKINGDOM.    VERTEB11ATA. 


MIGRATIONS    OF    BIRDS. 

Many  species  of  birds  leave  certain  localities  in  the  fall,  and,  spend 
ing  the  winter  at  the  South,  return  in  the  spring.  Why  they  do  thus 
has  never  been  satisfactorily  explained.  The  failure  of  food  in  rigor- 
ous climates  is,  without  doubt,  the  main  factor  in  the  solution  of  the 
problem,  but  it  is  by  no  means  the  only  one.  Birds  might  incu- 
bate in  warm  latitudes  as  well  as  in  cold ;  unless,  perhaps,  a  second 
factor  be  found  in  the  physical  necessity  of  maintaining  a  uniform 
temperature.  But  individuals  cf  many  migratory  species  remain  in 
the  region  of  their  nativity  with  no  apparent  Inconvenience.  Greater 
freedom  from  molestation  in  rearing  their  broods  has  been  suggested  as 
a  third  factor.  If  it  be  so,  then  all  southern  birds  should  come  north. 
Some  birds  return,  year  after  year,  to  the  same  localities,  as  proved  by 
tying  bits  of  red  silk  to  their  legs;  but  it  cannot  be  positively  asserted 
of  many  species.  The  southernmost  limits  of  some  individuals  of  a 
species  may  also  be  the  northernmost  limits  of  others,  so  that  the  spe- 
cies may  be  regarded  as  resident,  though  the  individuals  are  migratory. 

The  males  of  some  of  the  Thrush  family,  as  well  as  those  of  certain 
spacies  of  other  families,  in  migrating  northward  precede  the  females 
by  two  or  three  weeks,  while  the  sexes  associate  in  going  southward. 

It  is  not  determined  whether  any  of  the  northern  birds  migrate  as  far 
as  the  Equator,  though  many  individuals  of  most  of  the  species  are 
known  not  to  pass  beyond  the  Gulf  States,  especially  the  southern  half 
of  Florida.  The  strictly  insectivorous  birds,  as  swallows,  martens,  etc. , 
collect  in  flocks  and  leave  earliest  in  the  fall.  They  are  followed  by  the 
granivorous  when  seeds  become  scarce  or  covered  with  snow. 

Extensive  districts  become  gradually  depopulated  of  certain  species, 
while  in  other  regions  they  multiply.  After  a  time  the  former  local- 
ities are  revisited  by  the  species  that  had  become  nearly  or  quite 
extinct,  while  the  latter  lose  their  abundance.  Hence,  to  the  annual 
migrations  must  be  added  others  marked  by  cycles  of  years ;  and  not 
necessarily  in  lines  of  longitude,  but  as  frequently  in  those  of  latitude. 

Birds  come  and  go  ;  but  whence  they  come  and  whither  they  go  is 
a  matter  of  conjecture.  One  morning  the  trees  of  Independence 
Square,  in  the  heart  of  Philadelphia,  were  found  filled  with  crows. 
Not  a  caw  was  to  be  heard  nor  a  movement  seen.  The  birds 
appeared  to  be  awaiting  in  silence  further  instruction.  After  some 
time  several  new-comers  glided  among  them,  threading  their  way 
through  all  the  flock,  when  suddenly  the  teeming  thousands  rose 
simultaneously  and  departed  as  mysteriously  as  they  came. 

as  accurately  ap  if  a  purveyor  had  been  employed  ;    stones  are  removed,  streets 
made,  a  wall  is  thrown  up  on  the  windward  side,  and  sentinels  are  posted. 


DIRECTIONS    FOR    PRESERVING    SKINS.  1G3 


HINTS   FOR   PRESERVING   SKINS   OF   MAMMALS   AND   BIRDS. 

Mammals.— Stuff  cotton  into  the  mouth,  nostrils,  large  shot-holes, 
etc.  Split  the  skin  from  the  top  of  the  breast-bone  to  the  tail,  being 
careful  not  to  cut  through  the  abdominal  muscles.  Push  off  the  skin,  not 
pull  it  off  from  the  body.  Separate  the  limbs  from  the  body,  preserving 
all  the  bones,  including  the  shoulder-blades.  With  a  cleft  stick  slide 
out  the  tail,  if  covered  with  hair  ;  but,  if  naked  like  the  tail  of  a  rat, 
cut  it  off,  as  it  cannot  be  skinned.  Turn  out  the  legs  and  clean  away 
all  flesh  to  the  toes,  leaving  the  tendons  around  the  joints.  Skin  over 
the  head,  taking  off  the  ears  close  to  the  skull,  and  preserving  unin- 
jured the  eyelids  and  lips.  Cut  into  the  mouth  on  the  inside  of  the 
teeth  only  to  remove  the  tongue.  Cut  off  the  head,  cleaning  away  all 
muscle  and  taking  out  the  brain  and  eyes.  While  the  skin  is  wrong 
side  out  and  moist,  sprinkle  it  thoroughly  with  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts,  by-  weight,  of  powdered  alum  and  arsenic.  Fill  the  eye-orbits 
with  cotton.  Push  the  skull  and  legs  back,  supplying  the  place  of  the 
flesh  in  those  portions  with  tow  or  cotton.  Force  a  wrapped  wire  into 
the  tail,  if  skinned,  to  hold  it  in  place.  Leave  the  skin  a  few  hours, 
flattened  to  bring  the  inner  surfaces  together,  to  absorb  the  mixture. 
Finally,  distend  the  skin,  without  stretching  it,  into  its  natural  shape, 
as  nearly  as  possible,  with  any  dried  vegetable  substance. 

Birds. — Take  the  girth  of  the  body  over  the  wings  with  a  slip  of 
paper,  pinning  it  in  the  form  of  a  ring,  and  slide  it  off  over  the  tail. 
Begin  the  incision  with  the  lower  third  of  the  breast-bone.  Cut  off 
the  legs  at  the  knee-joint,  and  the  wings  at  the  elbow-joint.  Skin  over 
the  head  to  the  bill,  pulling  out  the  ears  and  enlarging  the  orifice  to 
take  out  the  brain  by  cutting  forward  into  the  roof  of  the  mouth.  In 
all  other  respects  proceed  as  with  Mammals,  with  such  slight  modifi- 
cations as  will  naturally  suggest  themselves.  Most  web-footed  birds 
have  the  head  too  large  to  force  the  skin  over.  For  these,  skin  the 
neck  as  far  as  possible,  amputate,  and  after  the  skin  is  poisoned  and 
turned  back,  an  incision  must  be  made  o^  the  top  of  the  head  or  under 
the  throat,  by  which  the  head  may  be  skinned  in  the  usual  way.  Then 
poison,  turn  back,  and  carefully  sew  up  the  incision.  Great  care 
must  be  taken  to  work  the  poison  around  the  roots  of  the  tail  and  the 
wrist-bones  of  the  wings,  opening  orifices  on  the  inside  with  the  blade 
of  the  knife,  and  inserting  a  pinch  of  the  powder.  In  the  case  of  very 
long  wings,  after  turning  the  skin  back,  cut  a  slit  along  the  under-side 
of  the  arm  and  remove  the  muscles.  Stuff  cotton  loosely  into  the  neck 
and  body  and  around  the  bones  of  the  legs.  Tie  the  bones  of  the 
wings  in  their  natural  position.  Sew  up  the  slit,  and  after  a  careful 


164  SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 

arrangement  of  any  displaced  feathers,  place  the  bird  in  the  paper  ring, 
and  label.  Upon  the  label  should  be  written  the  scientific  and  the 
local  name  ;  the  length  in  inches,  from  tip  of  beak  to  tip  of  tail,  the 
bird  lying  on  its  back  with  neck  not  stretched  ;  length  of  wing  from 
carpal  joint  to  tip  of  longest  quill ;  and  of  tail  from  insertion  to  end  ; 
the  sex ;  kind  of  food  found  in  the  stomach ;  locality  ;  date ;  and 
the  name  of  the  collector.  To  remove  blood,  wash  freely  with  warm 
water  and  dry  immediately  by  dusting  on  finely  powdered  plaster  of 
Paris  or  chalk ;  also  sprinkle  on  the  chalk  or  plaster  if  fat  annoys 
while  skinning.  Oily  stains  may  be  removed  from  feathers  by  a  solu- 
tion of  potash  or  soda  (half  a  teaspoonf  ul  to  a  cup  of  water),  and  wash- 
ing immediately  after  with  pure  water  and  drying  with  plaster.  If 
the  feathers  to  be  cleansed  are  colored,  ox  or  sheep's  gall,  diluted  one- 
half  with  water,  should  be  used  instead  of  the  potash  or  soda.  Single 
feathers,  permanently  bent,  may  be  at  once  restored  to  their  natural 
position  by  simply  holding  them  in  a  jet  of  steam  issuing  from  the 
spout  of  a  tea  kettle.  For  study,  unmounted  specimens  of  birds  or 
animals  are  always  preferred  ;  and  as  mounting  is  a  distinct  art  from 
simply  preserving,  and  can  be  learned  only  from  a  teacher,  no  attempt 
is  made  to  give  instructions  in  it. 

EggS  should  never  be  washed,  even  to  remove  the  filth  of  the 
nest.  A  dentist's  tooth-drill  or  a  nail  filed  three-cornered  may  be  used 
for  drilling  a  hole  in  the  side.  By  inserting  a  small  glass  tube  or 
straw  the  contents  may  be  blown  out  of  the  same  hole,  around 
the  tube.  Blowing  in  a  little  water  and  shaking  thoroughly  will 
often  facilitate  the  process.  If  the  embryo  is  partly  developed,  a 
larger  hole  may  be  cut,  and  the  contents  removed  with  a  hooked  pin, 
pulling  out  one  limb  at  a  time,  and  cutting  it  off.  The  operation  of 
blowing  eggs  should  always  be  performed  over  water.  Labels  for 
eggs  should  note  particularly  the  date,  locality,  site  chosen  by  the  bird, 
scientific  and  common  name,  and  any  facts  of  interest. 


CLASS  REPTILIA:    OEDEE  TESTUDINATA, 


165 


CLASS   III.      REPTILIA. 

General  Characteristics  (see  Table,  p.  13). — Reptiles*, 
being  cold-blooded,  require  nothing  to  retain  the  heat,  and 
so  are  covered  only  with  naked  skin,  scales,  etc.  The  three- 
chambered  heart  does  not  send  all  the  venous  blood  to  the 
lungs.  Pure  oxygenated  blood,  however,  goes  to  the  head. 
Reptiles  are  most  abundant  in  hot  climates,  those  of  cold 
regions  hibernating.  They  are  generally  carnivorous,  and 
swallow  their  prey  whole. 


NEARLY  COVERED  WITH 

A  BONY  OR  HORNY 

| 

CASE  WHICH  BLENDS 

WITH  THE  NEURO- 

TestodJnata, 

Tortoise,  etc. 

SKELETON. 

F 

<j 

COVERED  WITH  SQUARE 

PLATES  

Loricata, 

Alligator,  etc. 

*-  2 

MOUTH  NOT  DILATABLE  ; 

}' 

Q_  DO 
iii 

LEGS     GENERALLY    DEVEL- 

Lacertilia, 

Lizard,  etc. 

cc 

OPED,  EYES  WITH  LIDS. 

MOUTH   DILATABLE  ;   NO 
LEGS,   NO  EYE-LIDS. 

\ 

Ophidia, 

Snake,  etc. 

ORDER     TESTUDINATA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Turtles  have  the  skel- 
eton on  the  exterior  of  the  body.     The  vertebrae  and  ribs  are 


'.  376. 


Skeleton  of  European  Tortoise. 


*  There  eeems  little  resemblance  "between  a  crawling  reptile  and  a  flitting  song- 
ster ;  yet,  in  structure,  reptiles  are  much  nearer  related  to  birds  than  to  mammals. 
This  is  shown  especially  in  the  fossil,  reptile-like  bird,  Arcfuxopteryx.  and  the  bird 
like  reptiles,  Dinosauria  and  Ornithosauria.  See  Geology,  page  183-5. 


166 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


Fig.  277. 


consolidated  into  an  upper  shell  called  the  Carapace,  while 
the  broadened  sternum  forms  a  lower  one  termed  the  Plas- 
tron.* Into  this  portable  cas- 
tle the  reptile  retreats  with 
marvelous  rapidity,  f  in  one 
genus  the  limbs  and  head  be- 
ing withdrawn  so  as  to  show 
no  apparent  opening.  The 
viscera,  the  shoulder  and  hip- 
bones, and  the  muscles  are  all 
packed  in  the  thorax.  Breath- 
ing is  performed  by  enlarging 
the  cavity  of  the  mouth,  when 
the  air  rushes  in  through  the 
nostrils,  and  by  contraction  is  forced  down  the  windpipe. 


Skeleton  of  a  Marine  Turtle. 


TRUNCATED  AND  UNIT-   1 
ED  TO  THE  NAILS.         j 

Testudinidse, 

FLATTEN- 

CARAPACE    \ 

COVERED         > 
WITH  SCALES.    J 

Emydidae, 
Chelydidae, 

ED,  WITH 

DISTINCT 

CARAPACE     •> 

TOES. 

COVERED     BY    1 
A  FLEXIBLE       J 

Trionychidae, 

SKIN.             J 

FLATTENED  AND         •) 

FORMED  INTO  PADDLES   I 
FOR  SWIMMING,  WITH     f 

Chelonidse, 

TOES  CONCEALED.       J 

Cistudo  virginiana,     Box  Tortoise. 


Chelydra  serpentina,  River  Tortoise. 
Chelys  matamata,       llcavded  Tortoise. 


Snapping  Tortoise. 


Chelonia  midas,          G.  em  Turtle. 


Testudinidae. — The  Land  Tortoises  J  have  feet  formed 
only  for  walking,  and  hence  they  never  enter  the  water. 
Their  food  consists  of  soft  plants,  as  mushrooms.  The  plas- 
tron of  the  female  is  convex,  and  that  of  the  male  concave.§ 

*  The  same  number  of  pieces  is  found  in  the  skeleton  as  in  the  ordinary  verte- 
bra t,es,  the  shape  and  size  alone  being  changed. 

t  The  long,  slender  muscles  which  move  the  flexible  neck  are  tied  to  the  under 
side  of  the  carapace.  When  dried  they  may  be  capable  of  producing  musical  sounds 
and  thus  have  given  rise  to  the  poetical  legend  of  the  origin  of  the  lyre. 

$  Many  authors  use  the  terms  tortoise  and  turtle  synonymously  ;  but  the  former 
term  is  properly  applied  to  the  land  species,  and  the  latter  to  the  marine. 

§  The  "  Gopher,"  a  small  tortoise  about  eighteen  inches  long,  found  at  the  South, 
belongs  to  this  family.  It  will  burrow  six  feet  in  the  ground. 


CLASS  REPTILIA:    ORDER  TESTUDINATA. 


1G7 


Cistudo  virginlana,  Box  Tortoise.    J. 


Emydidae.— The  River  *- «*• 

Tortoise  is  a  common 
North  American  species. 
Its  sharp-edged  jaws  are 
strong  enough  to  bite  asun- 
der a  stick  half  an  inch  in 
diameter.  It  is  fond  of 
water-fowl,  swimming  be- 
neath the  surface  and 
quietly  dragging  them  un- 
der. About  June  10th,  in 
the  temperate  climates,  it  lays  thirty  to  fifty  spherical  eggs. 

For    their  reception,  a 
hole  is  scooped  in  the 
sand  by  the   hind  feet, 
and    then    smoothed 
over  and  left.     This  en- 
tire work  is  done  within 
fifteen   or  twenty  min- 
utes.    The    eggs    are 
hatched  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun  in  about  three  months,  when  the  young  immediately 
take  to  the  water. 
Chelydidae. — The  Bearded  Tortoise  is  at  once  the  type 

Fig.  Z80. 


'.  279. 


Chelydra  serpentlna, 
River  Tortoise,  "  Snapping  Turtle." 


Chelys  matamata,  Bearded  Tortoise,  South  America.    &. 

and  the  grotesque  member  of  this  aquatic  family.     Its  flesh 
is  highly  prized. 
Trionychidae.*— The  Fierce    Trionyx  is  destructive  to 

*  For  an  interesting  account  of  the  great  fresh-water  tortoise  read  Bates's  "  The 
Naturalist  on  the  Amazon." 


1G8 


SUBKIKGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


fish,  smaller  quadrupeds,  birds  and  reptiles.  One  bite  of  its 
formidable  jaws  will  sever  the  fingers  from  the  hand  or  the 
toes  from  the  foot.  Its  eggs  have  brittle  shells. 

Fig.  281. 


Tridnyxferox,  Snapping  Tortoise. 


Chelonidae.  —  The  Sea  Turtles  are  provided  with  flippers, 
and  venture  far  out  from  land,  visiting  the  shore  only  at 
stated  places  and  times  to  lay  their  eggs.  They  frequent  the 
tropical  waters  in  herds.*  The  Green  Turtle  is  the  most 
prized  of  the  edible  species.  It  sometimes  weighs  two  thou- 
sand pounds. 

fig.  282. 


Cheloma  midas,  Green  Turtle. 


*  In  the  Antilles  and  other  breeding-places  the  turtle  is  exceedingly  valuable.  Its 
eggs  are  a  delicacy;  its  flesh  is  used  for  food  ;  its  fat  for  oil  and  butter ;  its  carapace 
for  drinking  troughs,  bathing  tubs,  canoes,  roofs  to  the  native  huts,  and  the  tortoise- 
shell  is  an  article  of  commerce. 


CLASS  KEPTILTA:    ORDER  LORICATA.  169 

Fig.  283. 


Turtle's  nest  in  the  sand. 

ORDER     LORICATA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Mail-clad  reptiles  are 
found  in  the  swamps  and  rivers  of  warm  regions.  Bony 
plates  set  in  the  leathery  hide  form  a  bullet-proof  cuirass. 
The  lower  jaw  is  composed  of  six  bones  of  varying  length, 
put. together  like  the  steel  plates  in  carriage-springs.  This 
secures  the  elasticity  required  by  its  inconceivably-quick 


Alligator's  lower  jaw. 

snapping  bite.  To  get  an  enormously-large  gape,  the  lower 
jaw  is  articulated  to  the  back  part  of  the  skull,  giving  the 
appearance  of  motion  to  the  upper  jaw  independent  of  the 
cranium.  The  conical,  deciduous  teeth  are  constantly  re- 
newed. The  nostrils  at  the  end  of  the  snout  communicate 
with  the  pharynx  behind  cartilaginous  plates,  which  prevent 
the  water  from  running  down  the  throat,  and  enable  the 
animal  to  breathe  while  it  has  its  mouth  open  in  drowning 
its  prey.  The  nose  and  ears  are  also  provided  with  valves  to 
keep  out  the  water.  The  tail  articulates  with  the  backbone 
by  a  ball-and-socket  joint,  so  that  with  a  quick  lateral  mo- 


170 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


tion  it  can  knock  its  victim  forward  into  the  mouth  which  is 
turned  sideways  to  receive  it.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  an  arti- 
ficial heap  of  mud  and  vegetable  matter,  which  in  decaying 

Fig.  285. 


Skeleton  of  Alligator. 


affords  heat  to  hatch  them.  The  mother  remains  near,  and, 
attracted  by  the  yelping,  tears  open  the  pile,  liberates  the 
brood  of  fifty  or  sixty,  and  leads  them  to  the  water.* 


LORICATA. 


MUZZLE  NOTCHED  TO  RECEIVE  THE  FOURTH 

TOOTH  OF  THE  LOWER  JAW  ;  FEET  WEBBED 

TO  THE  NAILS. 

MUZZLE  WITH  A  HOLE  TO  RECEIVE  THE 

FOURTH  TOOTH  OF  THE  LOWER  JAW  ;  FEET 

PARTIALLY  WEBBED. 


V  Crocodilidaj,     Crocodile. 
(  Alligatoridae,    Alligator,  etc. 


Crocodilidae.— The  Crocodile  of  the  Nile  and  the  Ganges 
is  thirty  feet  long,  while  that  of  the  Western  Continent  sel- 
dom exceeds  fifteen.  It  often  ventures  out  several  miles 
at  sea. 

Fig.  286. 


Crocod/Um  vulgaris,  Crocodile. 


*  They  are  so  generally  the  prey  of  birds,  tortoises,  and  male  alligators,  that  the 
race  would  become  extinct  were  not  the  progeny  so  abundant. 


CLASS  REPTILIA:    ORDER  LACERTILIA.  171 

Alligatoridae. — The  Alligator  belongs  to  the  New  World. 

Fig.  287. 


Alligator  missiszippiensis,  Alligator. 


In  the  colder  portions  of, its  habitat  it  hibernates  in  the  mud, 
but  within  the  tropics  is  active  at  all  seasons. 


ORDER     LACERTILIA. 

General  Characteristics.— The  teeth  are  simply  at- 
tached to  the  surface  of  the  jaw.  In  the  Leptoglossa 
(slender- to ngued)  group,  the  tongue  is  long,  nicked,  and 
enclosed  in  a  sheath,  from  which  it  can  be  protruded  through 
a  notch  when  the  jaws  are  closed.  In  the  Pachyglossa 
(thick-tongued),  this  organ  is  fleshy,  and  can  be  thrust  out 
only  when  the  mouth  is  open. 

Chamaeleonidae.— The  Chameleon  is  confined  to  the  Old 

World.*  It  leads  a  double 
life.  It  may  be  asleep  on  one 
side  and  awake  on  the  other. 
One  eye  can  watch  an  insect 
crawling  in  the  rear,  and  the 
other  in  front.  When  agitated, 
each  half  of  its  body  wishing 

Chamcelton  vulgaris,  Chameleon.  * 


*  Many  of  the  stories  current  about  the  chameleon's  change  of  color  are  doubt- 
less fabulous ;  yet  it  can  become  at  pleasure  yellow,  green,  or  black.  "  In  the  skin," 
says  Bert,  "  there  is  a  network  of  minute  ducts,  connecting  with  pigment-vesicles 
on  the  under  surface,  which  contain  the  coloring  liquid.  The  tint  of  the  animal 
depends  on  the  amount  of  this  liquid  injected  into  the  ducts."  The  process  seems 
somewhat  analogous  to  that  of  blushing  in  the  human  species. 


172 


SUBKIKGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 

Fig.  289. 


Fig.  290. 


2.  Foot  of  Chameleon. 

to  go  its  own  way,  the  animal  tumbles  about  as  if  intoxicated. 

Three  of  its  five  toes  on 
each  foot  are  united  in 
an  opposable  bundle  to 
the  other  two,  giving  a 
firm  grasp  to  the  branch 
around  which  it  winds 
its  prehensile  tail.  It 
never  moves  two  feet 
at  once,  and  often  car- 
ries one  sluggishly  for- 

Iguana  tuber  culata,  Iguana.   ^5.  ward    after    the     other, 

with  the  imperceptible  movement  of  the  hour-hand   of  a 
watch ;  but  its  long,  gummy  tongue  is  Mg.  291. 

quick  enough  to  catch  a  fly  buzzing 
past,  at  the  distance  of  twice  the  length 
of  the  Chameleon's  body. 

IgTianidae. — The  Iguana  occurs  in 
both  hemispheres,  but  the  typical 
genus  only  in  South  America.  Some 
species  of  this  arboreal  lizard  are 
prized  as  food. 

Agamidae. — The  Horned  Toad  of 
Western  North  America  may  be  tamed 
as  a  pet  and  taught  to  come  and  go  at 
cali. 

Greckotidse. — The  Gecko  has  ex- 
panded toes,  from  which  a  sticky  fluid 

.          .  J  Phryno&ma  cornuta. 

exudes,  enabling  it  to  ascend  smooth         Homed  Toad.  j.  ' 


CLASS  REPTILIA:    ORDEE  OPHIDIA. 


173 


walls  and  run  along 
ceilings,  with  its  back 
downward. 

A  m  e  i  v  i  dae. — The 
Lizards  of  the  New 
World  are  small,  and 
useful  as  destroyers  of 
noxious  insects. 

Scincidae.— The 
Glass  Snake  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  is  one  of  the  aberrant  forms  belonging  to  this 

Fig.  293. 


Platydactylus  seychettensis^  Gecko.    \. 


Ameiva  sexlinedta,  Striped  Lizard. 


Ophisaurus  ventralis,  Glass  Snake. 


family.     When  frightened,  it  contracts  its  muscles  so  vio- 
lently that  its  tail  will  break  off  as  if  it  were  brittle. 

ORDER    OPHIDIA. 

General  Characteristics. — Serpents  are  distinguished 
by  their  dilatable  mouth  and  the  absence  of  a  sternum. 
They  crawl  by  using  the  movable  ribs  and  under  scales  as 
legs.*  The  vertebrae  are  joined  to  each  other  and  to  the  ribs 


*  The  method  ia  easily  realized  by  allowing  one  of  the  non-venomous  kind  to 
crawl  over  the  palm  or  back  of  the  hand. 


174 


BUBKIKGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


by  ball-and-socket  joints.  The  eyes  are  destitute  of  lids,  and 
hence  the  unblinking  stare  of  a  serpent.  Some  species  are 
hatched  from  the  egg  before  it  is  deposited,  and  are  said  to 
be  ovo  viviparous ;  but  nearly  all  lay  eggs  in  the  sand,  to  be 
hatched  by  solar  heat.  In  some  varieties,  the  mother  looks 
after  her  young  for  a  season,  and  swallows  them  in  case  of 
danger.  The  teeth  point  backward.  Most  of  the  venomous 
serpents  have,  in  place  of  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  two  fangs, 
through  which  the  poison  is  ejected  to  the  bottom  of  the 
wound.*  The  jaws  are  fastened  with  elastic  ligaments, 


Fig.  295. 


Skeleton  of  a  Serpent. 

which  allow  them  to  be  separated,  so  that  the  snake  can 
swallow  an  animal  twice  its  own  size.  Snakes  shed  their 
epidermis  once,  and,  in  many  cases,  three  or  four  times  a 
year.  It  parts  around  the  mouth,  and  the  reptile  slides  out 
of  it  by  crawling  through  a  crevice  to  hold  it,  reversing  the 
cuticle.  The  slough  is  perfect,  even  to  the  epidermis  of  the 

*  Snakes,  in  repose,  coil  with  the  tail  in  the  middle  and  the  head  outside,  laid 
over,  at  times,  across  the  folds  of  the  body  to  the  centre  of  the  coil ;  FO  that  on  an 
alarm  they  can  uncoil  with  a  forward  motion,  as  they  have  no  power  of  moving  tail 
first.  When  about  to  strike,  resting  upon  the  latter  third  of  their  body,  they  double 
themselves  into  folds,  not  coils,  and  suddenly  straightening,  reach  forward  their 
length  only,  and  always  instantly  recover  their  darting  position. 


CLASS  EEPTILIA:    ORDER  OPHIDIA. 


175 


Fig.  296. 


eyes.    In  cold  climates,  snakes  hibernate,  gathering  often  in 

their    holes    in     large 

masses.* 

Crotalidae. — Rattle- 
snakes have  on  the  end 
of  the  tail  a  series  of 
horny  enlargements, 
loosely  attached  to  each 
other,  which,  when 
shaken,  make  a  rattling 
noise.  Each  slough 
leaves  a  new  button, 
while  the  end  ones  are  dropping  off  from  wear ;  hence  the 
number  is  no  indication  of  age.  The  Copper-head,  Mocca- 
sin, etc.,  are  venomous  snakes  belonging  to  this  family. 


Skull  of  Rattlesnake,  thawing  fangs. 


Fig.  207. 


Fig.  298. 


Rattlesnake's  tail. 


Crotalus  durissus.  Rattlesnake. 


*  Naturalists  are  divided  as  to  whether  snakes  have  the  power  of  "  charming  " 
birds  and  animals.  The  general  belief  is  that  it  is  only  a  paralysis  caused  by  fear  on 
*ho  part  of  its  victim. 


176 


SUBKIXGDOM    VEETEBRATA. 


They  are  more 
dangerous  than 
the  rattlesnake, 
as  they  give  no 
warning.* 

The  Adder,  a 
spotted  snake  of 
New  England, 
though  biting 
severely,  is  not 
poisonous. 

The  so-called 
Vipers  are  con- 
fined to  the  Old 
World.  The 
Cobra  de  capello 
(Naj  a  tripu- 
dians)  of  South- 
ern Asia  can  ex- 
pand the  upper 
part  of  its  body 

*  The  percentage  of 
persons  dying  from  the 
effect  of  a  snake-bite  is 
very  small.  In  many 
instances  fear  is  more 
fatal  than  the  poison. 
Hence  the  snake  that 
has  bitten  should  be 
immediately  killed, 
and  its  mouth  exam- 
ined for  fangs.  If  they 
are  not  found,  all 
anxiety  may  cease  at 
once,  with  regard  to  all 
our  land  snakes.  If  dis- 
covered, the  only 
known  remedy  is  some 
form  of  alcoholic  drink, 
which  should  be  taken 
as  speedily  as  possible 
in  large  quantities,  till 
intoxication  results, 
which  is  a  sign  that  the 
1  oison  is  neutralized. 


CLASS    REPTILIA:     ORDER    OPHiDIA. 


177 


into  a  kind  of  hood,  and  its  dilation  is  a  sign  of  anger,  as 
strikingly  as  the  rattle  in  Crotalus.  The  hood  is  marked  by 
a  figure  not  unlike  a  pair  of  spectacles.  The  bite  is  greatly 
dreaded,  as  the  poison  is  very  subtle.  In  India,  the  Cobra 
is  reverenced,  and  when  one  takes  up  its  abode  in  a  house, 
the  Hindoo  will  induce  it  to  enter  an  earthen  jar,  and  then 
carefully  carry  it  off  to  a  distance  and  release  it.* 

Colubridae. — The  Black-snake,  Striped-snake,  Water- 
snake,  etc.,  are  included  in  this  family.  They  are  all  perfectly 
inoffensive. 

Fig.  300.  Fig.  SOI. 


Boa  anaconda.  Hooks  of  Anaconda. 

Boidae. — The  Boa  and  Anaconda  of  South  America,  and 
the  Python  of  Africa  and  the  East  Indies,  are  the  largest  ser- 

*  This  serpent  is  also  used  by  snake-charmers,  who  handle  it  with  impunity  and 
pretend  to  throw  it  into  a  lethargy  and  bring  it  out  at  will.  u  Drawing  the  reptile 
from  its  cage  they  will  irritate  it  by  presenting  a  stick.  The  animal  immediately 
erects  the  fore  part  of  its  body,  swells  its  neck,  opens  its  jaws,  extends  its  forked 
tongue,  and  begins  to  hiss.  Then*  a  sort  of  battle  begins  between  the  serpent  and  the 
Aarmer.  The  latter  striking  up  a  monotonous  song,  opposes  his  clenched  fist  to 
his  enemy ;  the  former  fixes  its  glittering  eyes  upon  the  fist  and  follows  all  its  move- 
ments, balancing  its  head  and  thus  keeping  up  a  kind  of  dance." 


178 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBBATA. 


pents  known.  They  are  frequently  found  over  twenty  feet 
in  length.  Their  bite  is  harmless,  but,  suspending  themselves 
from  the  branches  of  trees,  they  dart  upon  their  victims  as 
they  pass  beneath,  entwine  them  in  massive  folds,  crush 
their  bones,  and  then  swallow  them  entire.* 

•      Hydrophidae. —  The 
Fi9'302-  Sea-snakes  inhabit    the 

fresh  and  salt  waters  of 
warm  regions.  They  are 
distinguished  by  their 
vertically-flattened  tail 
and  uniform  arrange- 
ment of  teeth,  showing 
no  distinct  fangs,  though 
proved  to  be  highly  ven- 
omous. The  nostrils,  on 
the  upper  part  of  the  snout,  are  provided  with  valves,  which 
proves  them  to  be  air-breathing.  At  least  forty-eight  species 
have  been  discovered,  all  but  six  belonging  to  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere. 

*  To  aid  in  grasping  the  limb,  they  have  on  each  side,  at  the  base  of  the  tail,  a 
horny  spur.  These  are  internally  connected  with  a  series  of  bones,  rudimentally 
representing  the  hind  legs  of  quadrupeds. 

Fig.  303. 


Sea-snake. 


Bascanwn  constrictor,  Black-snake. 


CLASS  AMPHIBIA:    ORDEK  ANUKA. 


179 


CLASS    IV.     AMPHIBIA. 

General  Characteristics. — Amphibians  have  a  double 
life — an  immature  or  tadpole  stage  passed  in  the  water, 
during  which  they  breathe  by  gills;  and  a  mature  stage 
passed  in  the  air,  during  which  they  breathe  by  lungs.  To 
this  metamorphosis  there  are  a  few  exceptions,  but  the  typi- 
cal species  lose  the  gills  and  tails  by  absorption,  and  develop 
lungs  and  limbs.  Some  retain  the  tails  and  others  the  gills, 
but  all  when  mature  have  lungs.  As  a  rule,  the  tadpoles 
are  herbivorous,  the  adults  carnivorous. 

f"  TAILS  AND  GILLS  TRANSIENT.  Anura,  F.  og,  Toad,  etc. 

AMPHIBIA. -I  TAILS  PERMANENT  AND  GILLS  TRANSIENT.    Urodela,  Salam-inder,  etc. 

(.TAILS  AND  GILLS  PERMANENT.  Amphipneusta,  Siren,  etc. 

ORDER     ANURA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Tailless  Amphibians 
are  distinguished  by 
their  broad  heads,  naked 
skin,  prominent  but 
retractile  eyes,  and,  in 
the  adult  state,  lack  of 
tails.  The  eggs  are  laid 
and  hatched  in  the 
water.  The  young  tad- 
pole resembles  a  little 
fish,  with  a  large  head 
and  compressed  tail, 
but  no  limbs.  Soon 
gills  (branchiae)  appear; 
and  then  small,  vascu- 
lar tufts  aid  respiration 
by  extracting  air  from 
the  water  that  passes 


through  the  mouth  and 

OUt  Of    temporary   Slits.  Tadpole  changes. 


Fig.  SOU. 


Skeleton  of  a  Frog. 
Fig.  305. 


180 


SUBKINGDOM    VEKTEBKATA. 


At  length  the  posterior  extremities  show  themselves ;  then 
the  anterior ;  the  tail  is  absorbed  (not  dropped  off) ;  the 
lungs  are  developed;  the  branchiae  waste  away;  and  the 
little  animal  matures  into  a  frog.  Destitute  of  ribs,  it 
breathes  like  the  tortoise,  by  swallowing  air. 


PRESENT  ;   TYMPANUM  DISTINCT 
UPPER  JAW  TOOTHED. 


PRESENT  ;  TYMPANUM  INDISTINCT  ; 
JAWS   TOOTHLESS. 


ABSENT  ;   TYMPANUM  CONCEALED  ', 
JAWS   TOOTHLESS. 


'     I  Ranidse, 
Bufonidae, 
Pipidse, 


Ranapipiens,  Bull- frog. 

Bufo  americana,        Common  Toad. 
Pipa  americana,       Surinam  Toad. 


Ranidae. — The  Common  Frog  (Eana  pipiens)  is  a  type 
of  this  family.    Living   mostly  in  the  water,   the  toes  of 


Fig.  306. 


Ranapipiens,  Bull-frog. 


its  hind  limbs  are  webbed.  The  Tree  Frog  (Hylulce)  has  a 
viscid  ball  or  sucker  on  each  of  the  toes,  by  which  it  can 
climb  easily.  It  lays  its  eggs  on  trees  which  overhang  the 
water,  and,  when  hatched,  the  young  drop  into  it.  In  cold 
latitudes,  all  the  species  hibernate  in  the  mud. 


CLASS    AMPHIBIA  I     ORDER    ANURA. 


181 


S07t 


Bufonidse.— Toads  differ  from  frogs  in  the  absence  of 
teeth  on  the  upper  jaw.  They  hibernate  beneath  rocks  and 
in  holes  which  they  dig 
in  the  ground,*  only 
visiting  the  water  to  lay 
their  eggs.  Living  ex- 
clusively upon  insects, 
and  having  a  voracious 
appetite,!  no  more  use- 
ful animal  can  be  har- 
bored in  a  garden.  In 

both    frogs    and    toads,     ,          Bufo  americanus,  Common  Toad. 

the  tongue  is  fastened 

at  the  front  of  the  mouth  instead  of  the  back.  The  viscid 
tip,  armed  with  two  finger-like  prongs,  can  be  darted  out 
with  incredible  velocity.  An  insect  venturing  near  is  thus 

ng.908.  g]ued    fast    and     Put 

down    the    animal's 

throat  without  masti- 
cation. 

Pipidae.— The  Su- 
rinam Toad  lays  its 
eggs  in  the  water,  but 
the  male  quickly  places 
them  upon  the  back  of 
the  female.  Adhering 
to  this,  cells  soon  form 
beneath,  in  which  they 
become  imbedded.  Here  the  young  are  hatched,  and  pass 


Pipa,  americana,  Surinam  Toad.    J. 


*  No  doubt  they  can  remain  a  long  time,  without  food,  but  there  is  no  well  authen- 
ticated instance  of  their  having  been  found  enclosed  in  cavities  of  solid  rock  with  no 
crevices  connecting  with  the  outside  world. 

t  A  naturalist  once  fed  to  a  toad  twenty-three  squash-bugs  and  ninety-four  cater- 
pillars, an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  before  it  turned  away  to  digest  its  meal.  Feed- 
ing mostly  by  night,  the  toad  is  of  great  aid  to  the  Entomologist  in  furnishing  him 
with  specimens  of  insects  he  might  otherwise  never  see  ;  though  he  is  compelled  to 
sacrifice  the  life  of  his  assistant  in  order  to  avail  himself  of  its  services.  In  spite  of 
popular  prejudice  against  handling  toads,  etc.,  all  the  members  of  this  order  are  per- 
fectly harmless,  except  a  temporary  smarting  that  the  exudations  of  the  skin  may 
produce  if  transferred  from  the  hands  to  the  eyes. 


183  SCBKINGDOM    VEKTEBEATA. 

through  the  usual  metamorphosis  from  the  tadpole  to  the 
full-limbed  stage.  Finally,  the  whole  brood  emerge,  present- 
ing a  singular  sight  as  they  struggle  out  with  heads  and 
paws  projecting  in  all  directions. 

ORDER  URODELA. 

General  Characteristics.  —  The  Tailed  Amphibians 
resemble  lizards,  but,  unlike  them,  have  gills  in  the  early 
stage  of  their  development.  Except  the  retention  of  their 
tails,  they  pass  through  essentially  the  same  transformations 
as  the  Anura,  the  fore  limbs,  however,  appearing  before  the 
back  ones. 


URODELA; 
Salamandridae. 


TAIL  CYLINDRICAL  ;   TERRES- 
TRIAL ;  VIVIPAROUS. 


TAIL  FLATTENED  ;    AQUATIC 
OVIPAROUS. 


i  Salamandra  macnlosa, 
'       I  Triton  cristatus, 


Salamander. 
Nttct. 


Salamandridae. — The  Salamander  exudes  a  milky,  gluti- 
nous kind  of  perspiration.  By  its  evaporation  this  will  for  a 
time  protect  the  body  from  the  heat,  and  hence  the  popular 


Fig.  309. 


Salamandra  macuWsa,  Salamander. 


superstition  that  the  animal  is  fire-proof.  The  Newt  skill- 
fully encloses  its  eggs,  deposited  singly,  in  the  fold  of  a  leaf 
whose  edges  are  carefully  glued  together.  It  possesses  a 
remarkable  facility  for  repairing  damages  ;  if  a  tail  or  leg  be 
broken  off,  it  will  be  restored,  and  the  operation  may  be 
repeated  many  times.* 


*  The  branchiaj  of  the  Frog  and  Newt,  when  the  limbs  are  partially  developed, 


CLASS  AMPHIBIA:    OKDEE  URODELA. 

Fig.  310.  Fly.  311. 


183 


/  riton  crist&tus,  Newt  or  Triton. 


SirMon  lichenoides,  Axolotl. 


Amphipneusta.  —  The  Double-breathing  Amphibians 
present  anomalous  forms,  which  are  of  interest  on  account 
of  the  apparent  permanency  of  their  gills.  Among  Ihem  are 
the  Siren,  or  Mud-eel,  of  the  Carolina  rice  swamps,  the  Axo- 

Fig.  312. 


Profits  anguinus. 

lot!  of  the  Mexican  lakes,  and  the  Proteus,  which  inhabits 
certain  caves  in  Austria,  and  has  only  rudimentary  eyes. 
Recent  investigations  suggest  a  doubt  whether  they  are  not 
merely  the  larvae  of  other  animals  whose  life  history  is  not 
yet  fully  known.* 

furnish  the  most  convenient  means  for  observing  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Plac- 
ing the  little  creature  in  a  vial,  with  a  pocket-lens  the  globules  may  be  seen  chasing 
one  another  as  they  go  out  through  the  arteries  and  return  by  the  veins. 

*  As  they  have  tuft-like  branchiae  besides  lungs,  they  have  been  thought  to  illus- 
trate the  general  law  that  the  "  transient  embryonic  stages  of  the  higher  members  of 
any  division  of  the  animal  kingdom  are  often  represented  by  the  permanent  condi- 
tion of  its  lower  members."" 


184 


SUBKIKGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


CLASS    V.      PISCES. 

General  Characteristics. — Fishes  rank  lowest  among 
vertebrates.    Their  bodies  occupy  a  horizontal  position,  with 
Fig  S13f  no  power  even  of  elevating 

the  head  independently. 
Their  senses  are  blunted. 
Their  eyes  are  large,  but 
generally  have  no  motion. 
The  external  ears  are  want- 
ing. They  progress  mainly 
by  horizontal  movements  of 
the  vertical  tail,  in  marked 
contrast  with  the  vertical 
movements  of  the  horizon- 
tal tail  of  the  mammals  in- 
habiting the  water.  The 
two  pairs  of  fins  underneath,, 
corresponding  to  the  four 
limbs  of  quadrupeds,  as  well 
as  the  fins  upon  the  back, 
serve  as  balancers.  Most 
fishes  have  a  swimming-blad- 
der— a  sort  of  rudimentary 
lung — whose  use  is  doubt- 
ful, though  it  is  thought  to 
be  serviceable  in  changing 
their  specific  gravity.  They 
breathe  by  means  of  gills. 
These  are  delicate  fringes  or 
_  SYSTEM  or  Fisn.-a.  Bran-  laminae  on  each  side  of  the 

chial  artery:  b.  Arterial  bulb;  c.  Van-  head,  generally  protected  by 
tticte  of  heart;   d.  Auricle;  «.  F«OW         i  ^         ,,    ,     ,,  .„ 

sinus;  I.  Vena  forte,  esc.  ;  g.  Intestine;  a    l  onv  tne    ff*** 

h.  Vena  cam ;  i.  GUI  teasels  :  k.  Urn  sal  COVBT.       TllO    Water,    Usually 
1.  Kidneys;  m.  Aorta. 


way  similar  to  the  act  of  swallowing,  bathes  the  gills,  and  is  then 


CLASS    PISCES  :     ORDEK    DIPNOI. 


185 


discharged  at  the  gill-openings.  Meanwhile,  the  blood  cir- 
culating in  the  gills  absorbs  the  oxygen  of  the  air  which  the 
water  contains,  and  is  purified.  As  the  heart  has  but  one 


Fig.  Sift. 


SKELETON  OF  A  FISH.— a.  Pectoral  Fins  ;  b.  Ventral ;  c.  Dorsal ;  d.  Anal ;  Tail,  caudal. 

auricle  and  one  ventricle,  the  blood,  after  being  aerated  in 
the  gills,  is  not  returned  to  the  heart,  but  is  driven  directly 
through  the  body.  The  mouth  is  the  only  prehensile  organ. 
All  the  species  are  essentially  oviparous,  a  few  being  ovovi- 
viparous. 

ORDER    DIPNOI. 

General  Characteristics.  —The  Double-breathing  fishes 
have  both  gills  and  lungs,  two  pairs  of  limbs,  and  two  auri- 


Fiy.  815. 


Lepldosiren  annectens,  Mud-fish.    TV 

cles.  They  thus  ease  the  transition  from  the  Amphibians  to 
the  Fishes.  There  is  only  one  family,  the  singular  Mud-fish 
of  tropical  rivers. 


186 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


ORDER     ELASMOBRANCHII. 

General  Characteristics.— The  Strap-gilled  fishes  have 
fixed  gills  and  no  gill-covers.  Their  skeleton  is  cartilagi- 
nous ;  skin,  rough ;  and  the  ventral  fins  are  far  back.  In  some 
families  the  tail-lobes  are  of  unequal  length  (JieterocercaT). 


Fig.  316. 


Fig.  317. 


Pastinaca  hastata,  Sting  Ray. 

Raiidae. — The  Rays  are  noted  for  their  enormous  pec- 
toral fins,  formidable  tail,  and  tesselated  teeth.     They  some- 
times weigh   half  a  ton.     The 
teeth  are   adapted  to  crushing 
sea-weed   and   shell-fish ;    while 
the    tail,   armed    with    hooked 
spines,  can  be   suddenly  lashed 
around    an    enemy,   the    barbs 
0  frightfully  lacerating  the  flesh.* 
*      Rhinobatidae  (nosed-skate). 
— The  Saw-fish  has  a  sword-like 
snout  one-third  the  length  of 
Tesselated  Teeth  of  a  Say.         tjje  body,  and  edged  with  tooth- 
like  spines.      Brandishing  this  among  a  school  of  fishes, 
many  are  at  once  disabled,  and  afterward  eaten  at  leisure. 

*  To  this  family  belongs  the  famous  Torpedo,  which  on  being  touched  gives  a 
violent  electric  shock.  It  possesses  a  kind  of  voltaic  pile  composed  of  parallel 
prisms,  1262  of  which  have  been  counted  in  a  single  fish.  The  electricity  has  been 
used  in  galvanic  experiments1  as  making  a  magnetic  needle,  etc. 


CLASS  PISCES:    ORDER  ELASMOBRANCHII. 

Fig.  318. 


187 


Pristis  antiqudrum,  Saw-fish. 


Zygaenidae  (yoked).— The  Sharks  are  the  butchers  and 
scavengers  of  the  ocean.  They  follow  ships  pertinaciously, 
swallowing  greedily  anything  thrown  overboard.*  Their  teeth 


Fig.  319. 


Zygoena  malllus,  Hammer-head  Shark. 


Shark's  Teeth. 


*  On  slow-sailing  merchant-ships,  shark-fishing  is  a  favorite  pastime,  especially 
when  the  vessel  is  hecalmed.  A  recent  account  says :  "  I  was  holding  the  heavy  hook 
and  wire  rope  over  the  side,  when  I  felt  that  I  had  ca'tght  a  big  fish,  and  pulling  it 
cautiously,  a  shark  came  to  the  surface.  I  called  out,  when  the  passengers  ran  to 
my  help.  He  struggled  so  violently,  lashing  the  water  with  his  tail  and  trying  to 
bite  the  hook  asunder,  that  we  were  obliged  to  keep  dipping  his  head  under  water 
and  then  haul  him  up  two  or  three  feet  to  let  it  run  down  his  throat.  At  last  he  was 
nearly  drowned,  when,  sending  a  running  how-line  down  the  rope  by  which  he  was 
caught,  and  making  it  taut  under  his  back  fin,  we  clapped  the  line  around  the  steam 


188 


SUBKIKGDOM    VEKTEBEATA. 


CLASS  PISCES:    ORDER  GAKOIDEI.  189 

are  in  numerous  rows,  held  by  strong  skin  upon  the  rounded 
edge  of  the  jaws ;  but  Mg  ^ 

only  the  outer  row 
stands  perpendicular- 
ly and  can  be  used. 
As  fast  as  any  drop 
out  from  wear  or 
fracture,  inner  ones 
move  forward  to  take 
their  place.  The 

TT  \      j     cn       7  Shark's  Egg. 

Hammer-head  Kliark 

is  sometimes  thirty  feet  long.  Its  eyes  are  at  the  end  of  the 
lateral  prolongations  of  the  head,  which  can  be  bent  so  that 
the  shark  can  see  its  victim  on  both  sides  as  it  settles  down 
upon  it.  The  eggs  of  both  Kays  and  Sharks  are  horn-like 
sacs,  with  tendrils  for  clinging  to  the  sea- weed. 

ORDER     GANOIDEI. 

Ganoidei  (enameled).— The   Ganoids  include  the  Gar- 
pike,  with  its  enameled   scales  in  oblique  transverse  rows, 

Fig.  323. 


JLepidostfus  ossZus^  Gar-pike.    £. 


and  the  Sturgeon,  with  its  bony  plates.  The  latter  feeds 
upon  the  garbage  and  vegetation  on  the  muddy  bottoms  of 
the  great  rivers. 

winch,  and  turned  the  eteam  on.  Some  then  hauled  his  tail  np,  while  all  available 
hands  dragged  at  the  other  line,  which  held  his  head.  As  soon  as  we  pot  him  on 
board  be  broke  off  about  three  feet  of  the  ship's  bulwarks  by  a  single  lash  of  his 
tremendous  tail.  This  was  then  cut  off  by  the  boatswain  with  a  hatchet,  while  a 
dozen  of  us  with  bowie-knives  finished  him.  We  found  in  his  stomach  six  large 
snakes,  two  empty  quart  bottles,  two  dozen  lobsters,  a  sheep-skin  and  horns  and  the 
shank-bones,  which  the  cook  had  thrown  overboard  two  days  before.  The  liver 
filled  two  large  wash-deck  tubs,  and  when  tried  out  gave  us  ten  gallons  of  oil." 


1DO 


SUBKItfGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


ORDER     TELEOSTEI. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Teleosts  (perfect  bone) 
include  nearly  all  the  common  fishes.  The  skeleton  is  more 
or  less  ossified,  the  skull  complicated,  the  single  gill-opening 
protected  by  a  bony  flap  or  "gill-cover"  (operculum),  and 
the  tail  equal-lobed  (liomocercaT). 

Syngnathidae  (jaw-tied). — The  Pipe-fish  has  a  tube-like 
jaw.  Its  single  dorsal  fin,  set  far  back,  works  like  the  screw 


Fig.  82!*. 


Fig.  325. 


Syngnalhus peckianus,  Pipe-fish,    j. 

of  a  propeller.  The  male  has  a  kind  of  marsupial  pouch,  in 
which  the  female  places  the  egg  for  hatching,  and  thither 
the  young  flee  for  safety.  It  feeds  upon  minute  insects  and 
shell-fish,  thrusting  its  long  snout  into  every  crevice,  and 
sometimes,  where  that  cannot  enter,  blowing  in  water  to  drive 
out  its  prey. 

Diodontid.83  (two-toothed).  —  The  Puffer  inflates  its 
body  by  swallowing  air.  Floating 
bottom  up,  it  presents  to  its  ene- 
mies beneath  only  a  ball  of  spines, 
with  which  its  back  is  thickly  cov- 
ered. 

Lophiidae  (crested).  —  The 
Fishing  Frog  has  the  ventral  fins 
forward  of  the  pectoral.  The  latter 
serve  as  legs,  and  enable  it  to  hop  about  upon  the  beach. 
Upon  the  head  are  three  spines— the  first,  with  a  shiny  mem- 
brane at  the  tip,  fastened  by  a  ring-and-staple  joint  and  able 


Tetrafidon  turgldus.  Puffer.    J-. 


CLASS  PISCES:    ORDER  TELEOSTEI. 

Mg.  826. 


191 


Mg.  327. 


LapJtius  americanus.  Fishing  Frog. 

to  move  in  every  direction  ;  the  other  two  turning  only  back- 
ward and  forward.  The  sluggish  creature  lies  in  the  mud  at 
the  bottom  of  the  water,  and,  waving  the  first  spine,  attracts 
the  curious  fishes  with  this  glistening  bait ;  but,  as  they  nib- 
ble, the  rear  spines  knock  them  into  its  capacious  mouth. 

P  e  r  c  i  d  86  (dusky).  —  Perch  are 
found  both  in  salt  and  fresh  water. 
Their  operculum  is  so  constructed 
that  they  can  be  kept  alive  in  the  air 
for  hours  by  occasionally  pouring 
water  upon  their  gills. 

Xiphiidae  (sword-like).  —  The 
Sword-fish  is  remarkable  for  its  upper  jaw  being  prolonged 
into  a  formidable  weapon.  As  its  food  consists  only  of  squid 
and  small  fishes,  the  use  of  the  "sword"  is  a  mystery.* 

Mg.  328. 


Yellow  Perch. 


*  Some  species  have  a  sword  so  strong  that  it  has  frequently  been  driven  through 
the  coppered  hull  of  a  vessel,  a  third  of  its  length  being  sawed  off  on  the  inside. 


192 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBEATA. 


Fig.  829. 


Scomberidae  (mackerel-like). 
— The  Mackerel,  in  May  and  June, 
approach  the  shores  in  enormous 
shoals  to  spawn,  and  great  num- 
bers are  then  caught  for  market. 

Fig.  330. 


Scomber  vernalis,  Mackerel.    ^. 

Blepharidae.—  The  Comer-fish 
is  noticeable  for  the  lengthening 
of  the  spines  of  the  dorsal  and 
anal  fins  into  hair-like  filaments. 

Chaetodontidae  (hair-toothed). 
—  The  Archer  can  shoot  a  drop  of 
water  from  its  mouth  with  such 
precision  as  to  bring  down  a  fly  at 


Fig.  331. 


Chatf&don  rostratus,  Archer,    f 

Gadidse. — The  Cod*  is  caught  in  deep  seas  with  hook 


*  The  use  of  the  barbule  on  its  chin  is  unknown,  unless  from  its  similarity  to  a 
worm  it  may  he  attractive  to  the  smaller  fish  upon  which  the  Cod  preys. 


CLASS    PISCES  :     ORDER    TELEOSTEI.  193 

Pig.  S32. 


Morrhua  americtina,  Cod. 


and  line.  It  is  so  numerous  in  certain  localities  that  eight 
men  have  taken  eighty  score  in  a  single  day.  Nine  millions 
of  eggs  have  been  found  in  the  roe  of  one  female. 

Echeneidae  (ship-holder). — The  Remora,  or  Sucker-fish, 


Fig.  333. 


Echeneis  aMcauda,  Remora. 


has  on  its  head  a  flat  disc,  not  unlike  the  sole  of  an  India- 
rubber  shoe.  This  enables  it  to  cling  to  rocks,  vessels,  and 
even  to  other  fish,  twelve  or  fifteen  having  been  found  hang- 
ing to  a  single  shark.  The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  holds 


Fig.  33k. 


Platessa  planet,  Flat-fish. 


194 


SUBKI^GDOM    VERTEBEATA. 


ss5. 


it  so  tightly  that  a  strong  man  can  hardly  drag  it  loose.  This 
arrangement  probably  serves  it  for  cheap  and  easy  transpor- 
tation, as  it  is  not  a  good  swimmer. 

Pleuronectidae  (side-swimmer).  —  The  Flat-fish  has  its 
head  singularly  twisted,  so  that  both  eyes  are  on  the  same 
side  of  the  body.  This  is  always  the  upper  and  dark-colored, 
Thile  the  lower  side  is  white.  The  Family  furnishes  im- 

portant  food  fish  as 
the  Halibut,  Turbot, 
Sole,  and  Flounder; 
the  first  sometimes 
reaching  a  weight  of 
six  hundred  pounds. 

Exoccetidae  (sleep- 
er-out). —  The  Flying- 
fish  has  large  pectoral 
fins,  by  which  it  can 
support  itself  in  the 
air  for  a  few  seconds.* 
Its  brilliant  coloring 
makes  it  the  common 
prey  of  bird  and  fish. 

*  This  so-called  "flight"  is  only  the  result  of  an  impetus  acquired  by  swimming 
to  the  surface  with  great  velocity,  in  order  to  escape  its  enemies.  It  cannot  change 
its  course  nor  raise  itself  in  the  air,  and  its  fins  cannot  be  flapped  like  wings,  but 
serve  only  as  a  parachute.  —  Capt.  Basil  Hall  gives  a  very  animated  description  of  the 
pursuit  of  a  school  of  flying-fish  by  a  dolphin  (Coryphcena  hipptiris,  Coryphene,  note, 
p.  84).  "The  flying-fish  took  their  flight  to  windward.  A  large  dolphin,  which 
had  been  keeping  company  with  us  abreast  of  the  weather  gangway,  and,  as  usual, 
glistening  most  beautifully  in  the  sun,  no  sooner  detected  our  poor  dear  friends  take 
wing  than  he  turned  his  head  toward  them,  darted  to  the  surface,  and  leaped  from 
the  water  with  a  velocity  little  short,  as  it  seemed  to  us,  of  a  cannon-ball.  But 
though  the  impetus  with  which  he  shot  himself  into  the  air  gave  him  an  initial 
velocity  greatly  exceeding  that  of  the  flying-fish,  the  start  which  his  fated  prey  had 
got  enabled  them  to  keep  ahead  of  him  for  a  considerable  time.  The  length  of  the 
dolphin's  first  spring  could  not  have  been  less  than  ten  yards,  and  after  he  fell  we 
could  see  him  gliding  like  lightning  through  the  water  for  a  moment,  when  he  again 
rose  and  shot  upwards  with  considerably  greater  velocity  than  at  first,  and  of  course 
to  a  still  greater  distance.  In  this  manner  the  merciless  pursuer  seemed  to  stride 
along  the  sea,  while  his  brilliant  coat  sparkled  and  flashed  in  the  sun.  As  he  fell 
headlong  in  the  water  at  the  end  of  each  leap,  a  series  of  circles  was  sent  far  over 
the  surface,  for  the  breeze—  just  enough  to  keep  the  royals  and  topgallant  studding- 
sails  extended  ^was  hardly  felt  as  yet  below.  The  group  of  wretched  flying-fish, 


CLASS  PISCES:    ORDER  TELEOSTEI. 

Fig.  836. 


195 


ClupZa  serrata,  Herring.    TV 


Pimelodus  atrarius,  Cat-fish  or  Horned-pout.    J. 

Siluridae. — The  Cat-fish,  or  Horned-pout,  has  a  naked 
skin,  and  the  mouth  surrounded  by  tentacles. 

Clupeidae  ( shad-like) . — T h e  Fig  m 

He  rring  ascends  fresh -water 
streams  to  spawn,  thus  coming 
each  spring  from  the  depths  of  the 
ocean  to  the  hand  of  man.  Im- 
mense schools  go  up  the  same 
stream  in  which  they  were  spawned  the  previous  year,  and 
always  select  the  branches  leading  to  certain  head-waters,  for 
which  they  have  a  preference. 

thus  hotly  pursued,  at  length  dropped  into  the  pea  ;  but  we  were  rejoiced  to  observe 
that  they  merely  touched  the  top  of  the  swell,  and  instantly  set  off  again  in  a  fres-h 
and  even  more  vigorous  flight.  The  direction  they  now  took  was  quite  different 
from  the  one  in  which  they  had  set  out,  implying  that  they  had  detected  their  fierce 
enemy,  who  was  gaining  rapidly  upon  them.  The  greedy  dolphin  was  fully  as  quick- 
sighted  :  for  whenever  they  varied  their  flight  in  the  smallest  degree,  he  lost  not  the 
tenth  part  of  a  second  in  shaping  his  course  so  as  to  cut  off  the  chase  ;  while  they,  in 
a  manner  really  not  unlike  that  of  the  hare,  doubled  more  than  once  upon  their  pur- 
suer. But  it  was  soon  plainly  to  be  seen  that  the  strength  and  confidence  of  the  flying- 
fish  were  fast  ebbing ;  their  flights  became  shorter  and  shorter,  nnd  their  course 
more  fluttering  and  uncertain,  while  the  leaps  of  the  dolphin  seemed  to  grow  more 
vigorous  at  each  bound.  Eventually  this  skilful  sea-sportsman  seemed  to  arrange 
his  springs  so  as  to  fall  just  under  the  very  spot  on  which  the  exhausted  flying-fish 
were  about  to  drop.  This  catastrophe  took  place  at  too  great  a  distance  for  us  to  see 
from  the  deck  what  happened  ;  but  on  our  mounting  high  on  the  rigging,  we  maybe 
said  to  have  been  in  at  the  death;  for  then  we  could  discover  that  the  unfortunate 
little  creatures,  one  after  another,  either  popped  right  into  the  dolphin's  jaws  as 
they  lighted  on  the  water,  or  were  snapped  up  instantly  after." 


196 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


Salmonidae.— The  Salmon  has  habits  similar  to  those  of 
the  Herring,  but,  on  account  of  its  greater  si  ze^  is  able  to 
ascend  waterfalls  ten  or  twelve  feet  in  height.  Arrived  at 
the  spawning  ground,  a  hole  is  scooped  in  the  gravel  and  the 
eggs  deposited  and  covered  over,  the  parent  returning 
leisurely  to  the  sea.  Its  food  in  the  ocean  consists  of  small 
sheil-nsh,  not  excepting  its  own  progeny. 

Fig.  338. 


Salmo  solar,  Salmon. 


The  Esocidae  include  the  voracious  European  Pike  and 
American  Pickerel  (Esox  reticulatus).  They  are  masters  of 
the  waters  in  which  they  reside,  destroying  mercilessly  every 
other  fish  and  even  the  young  of  their  own  kind,  as  well  as 
mammals  and  birds — three  water-rats  and  the  remains  of  a 
duck  having  been  found  in  the  stomach  of  one  pike.*  Hence 
they  should  be  exterminated  from  all  streams  intended  for 
the  raising  of  trout,  gold-fish,  and  other  soft-finned  fishes. 

*  A  swan  was  perceived  to  keep  its  head  under  water  longer  than  usual.  Upon 
examination  it  was  found  that  a  pike  Lad  so  far  gorged  its  head  as  to  kill  both  itself 
and  the  swan. 


CLASS  PISCES:    ORDER  TELEOSTEI. 

Mg.  339. 


197 


1.  Cypnnus  carpio,  European  Cafp.  2.  Esox  ludus,  European  Pike. 


Cyprinidae.— The  Carp,  indigenous  to  Europe,  has  been 
successfully  naturalized  in  America.  It  is  especially  culti- 
vated in  reservoirs  for  the  table,  attaining  sometimes  to  the 
weight  of  100  pounds,  and  living  to  the  age  of  150  years. 

The  Gold-fish  (Cyprmus  auratus),  originally  from  China, 
has  become  a  common  pet  of  the  parlor  and  the  fountain.* 


Fig.  9U>. 


Cypflnus  barbus,  Barbel,  Europe. 


*  GoM-fish  should  be  fed  once  a  week  with  some  animal  food,  as  worms,  and 
>nore  frequently  with  stiff  dough  of  flour  and  water. 


198 


SUBKINGDOM     VERTEBBATA. 


The  Silver-fish  is  only  a  variety  of  the  Gold,  resulting 
artificial  treatment. 

The  Barbel,  belonging  to  the  same  genus,  has  four  beards 
or  barbules  hanging  from  the  mouth,  probably  to  aid  it  in 
grubbing  with  its  nose  in  the  soft  banks  for  aquatic  larvae. 


Fig.  Ski. 


Anguitta  latirostris,  Broad-nosed  Eel.    TV. 

Anguillidse  (snake-like). — The  Common  Eel  is  oviparous, 
and  so  tenacious  of  life  as  to  wander  across  dewy  meadows 
from  pond  to  pond,  its  gill-openings  being  far  back  and  thus 
protecting  the  gills  from  drying. 


ORDER    MARSIPOBRANCHII. 

General  Characteristics.— The  Pouch-gilled  fishes  have 
a  cartilaginous  skeleton,  naked  skin,  only  one  nasal  organ, 
and  no  lower  jaw. 

Petromyzonidae     (stone-suckers).—  fig.  si*. 

The   Lamprey  occurs  in  both  salt  and 

Fig. 


Petnm&zon  americSmis,  Lamprey. 


Mouth  of  Lamptey. 


CLASS  PISCES:    ORDER  PHARYKGOBRAKCHII.       199 

fresh  water.  Its  mouth  is  simply  a  circular  sucking-cup, 
armed  with  numerous  teeth.  The  tongue,  working  like  a 
piston,  produces  a  vacuum  by  which  the  animal  adheres  to 
any  object.  Assisted  by  the  current,  it  thus  drags  away  quite 
large  stones  from  the  spot  it  chooses  for  depositing  its  spawn. 

ORDER    PHARYNGOBRANCHII. 

Pharyngobranchii  (gullet-gilled).     The  Lancelet,  a  sin- 
gular little  fish   not   over  two  Fig  3^ 
inches  long,  found  on   differ- 

sentative  of  this  order.    It  has   Sra,Mhiost&ma  ianceoiatus,  Lancelet. 
no   skull,    jaws,  brain,    heart, 

true  fins,  nor  eyes.  The  mouth  is  only  a  slit.  It  swims  by 
means  of  a  membranous  border  above  and  beneath.  Yet  the 
little  creature  breathes,  eats,  and  its  blood  circulates  by  means 
of  rhythmical  contractions  of  the  vessels.  It  is  considered  the 
lowest  type  of  organization  yet  known  in  the  Vertebrata, 


HOMOLOGIES  AND  ANALOGIES  OF  THE  VERTEBRATES. 

A  comparison  of  Figs.  26,  58,  70,  and  116,  illustrating  the  anatomy  of 
some  of  the  various  orders  of  Mammals,  shows  a  remarkable  similarity 
of  structure.  Thus,  while  the  figure  and  size  of  the  head  of  the  mam- 
mals vary  greatly,  it  is  always  composed  of  the  same  parts,  marked  by 
the  same  processes  and  united  in  the  same  order.  Any  difference  is 
only  a  modification  of  form  and  structure,  rather  than  of  omission  or 
addition.  These  variations  are  least  observable  in  the  embryonic  state, 
and  become  more  apparent  in  maturity,  through  the  ossifying  or  non- 
ossifying  of  the  sutures,  the  greater  or  less  development  of  the 
processes  for  muscular  attachment,  and  the  adaptation  of  the  cranium 
to  the  size  and  shape  of  the  brain.  The  so-called  "facial  angle," 
formed  by  a  line  drawn  from  the  forehead  to  the  most  prominent  part 
of  the  upper  jaw,  and  meeting  a  line  from  the  middle  of  the  ear  to 
the  base  of  the  nose,  shows  the  difference  in  the  form  of  the  head,  and 
is  an  index  to  the  intelligence  of  the  several  orders  of  mammals. 

Homologies  of  Limbs  in  the  same  Animal. -In  the 

skeleton  of  the  horse,  a  careful  study  of  the  angle  formed  by  the 
scapula  and  humerus  with  that  formed  by  the  ilium  and  femur,  will 
show  how  antagonism  in  direction  gives  stability  of  position.  Were 


200 


SUBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 


both  angles  directed  the  same  way,  the  bones  would  shut  together  and 
the  animal  fall.     That  there  may  be  a  double  antagonism  and  a  lower 

Fig.  3k5. 


Man. 


Ape. 


Deer. 


Whole. 


Bird. 


Tortoise. 


Fish. 


against  an  upper,  the  angle  formed  by  the  humerus  and  forearm 
antagonizes  that  formed  by  the  femur  and  leg  ;  but  each  respectively 


COMPARATIVE    ANATOMY.  201 

in  the  contrary  direction  to  the  antagonism  immediately  above  it,  thus 
intensifying  the  stability. 

Homologies  of  the  Limbs  of  different  Animals.— Com- 
paring the  anterior  limbs  of  different  orders  of  mammals  with  those  of 
birds,  reptiles  and  fishes  (See  Fig.  345)  the  same  fundamental  idea  will 
be  recognized  in  all,  yet  so  modified  as  to  adapt  the  several  species  to  the 
most  diversified  modes  of  life.  Thus  from  man  to  the  fish  are  found  the 
humerus  (H),  the  radius  and  ulna  of  the  forearm  (RU),  the  carpal 
bones  (C),  the  metacarpal  (MC),  and  the  phalanges  (PH).  The  greatest 
modification  is  observable  in  the  wrist-bones  (indicated  by  the  dotted 
line)  and  those  beyond.  The  normal  number  of  carpals,  metacarpals, 
and  phalanges,  is  sometimes  reduced  and  sometimes  multiplied,  that 
the  limb  may  be  used  specifically,  according  to  the  wants  of  the 
animal,  for  swimming,  crawling,  flying,  paddling,  running,  digging, 
climbing,  etc.  The  perfection  of  the  human  hand,  which  combines 
nearly  all  these  uses,  depends  chiefly  on  the  free  revolving  motion  of 
the  humerus  and  the  rotation  of  the  radius  about  the  ulna.  This  mode 
of  action  necessitates  a  clavicle.  The  more  perfect  this  bone,  the 
greater  the  power  of  rotating  the  forearm ;  and,  when  the  clavicle  is 
wanting,  the  radius  and  ulna  are  usually  consolidated  and  the  fore  limbs 
become  only  columns  of  support  or  instruments  of  progression.  This 
latter  condition  existing  in_  the  horse  and  the  ruminants,  the  meta- 
carpals are  greatly  elongated,  elevating  the  lieel  to  the  height  of  the  knee 
in  other  quadrupeds,  and  permitting  the  toe  only  to  touch  the  ground. 

The  posterior  extremities  follow  the  analogies  of  the  anterior  in 
most  mammals,  the  true  knee  with  its  patella  being  more  or  less  con- 
cealed in  the  flanks,  with  a  corresponding  elongation  of  the  heel,  the 
toe  only  touching  the  ground. 

Laws  Of  Comparative  Anatomy.— The  foregoing  remarks 
upon  homologies  and  analogies  prepare  for  a  deduction  of  some  of 
those  great  laws  of  coexistence,  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  com- 
parative anatomy. 

1.  Since  the  extremities  by  means  of  which  the  animal  procures  its 
food  must  always  bear  a  certain  relation  to  the  teeth  which  masticate 
and  fit  it  for  the  stomach,  the  former  decide  the  animal's  external 
structure,  and  the  latter  its  internal  organization. 

2.  The  position  and  size  of  the  processes  of  different  bones  deter- 
mine the  direction  and  force  of  the  muscles  by  which  they  are  worked. 

3.  The  character  of  the  muscles  determines  the  structure  of   the 
nerves  which  call  them  into  action,  and  of  the  brain  in  which  the 
nerves  originate. 

4.  The  nervous  system  determines  the  degree  of  intelligence. 

The  structure  of  an  animal,  its  natural  habit  and  mode  of  life,  can 
be  deduced  from  the  bones  of  the  extremities,  and  even  from  the 


202  STJBKINGDOM    VERTEBRATA. 

ends  only  of  any  one  of  them.  For  instance,  the  shape  of  a  single 
finger-bone  indicates  the  necessary  form  of  the  one  with  which  it 
articulates  ;  this  latter  its  fellow,  and  so  on  through  the  series  includ- 
ing the  metacarpal,  carpal,  radius  and  ulna,  humerus,  scapula  and 
clavicle.  The  result  of  this  investigation  suggests  at  once  to  a  com- 
parative anatomist  the  structure  of  the  teeth,  whether  herbivorous  or 
carnivorous,  and  thus  enables  him  to  decipher  the  entire  character 
of  the  animal.  Any  bone  in  the  series  answers  equally  well  for  a 
starting-point,  and  the  skill  of  the  investigator  is  shown  in  the  readi- 
ness with  which  he  reconstructs  the  whole  bony  fabric  from  the 
extremity  furnished.  Thus  Cuvier,  from  single  bones  found  in  the 
gypsum  near  Paris,  drew  the  entire  outline  of  fossil  genera  of  mam- 
mals ;  and  Agassiz,  from  isolated  scales,  restored  the  whole  fish.  (See 
Geology,  pp.  182  and  203.) 


HINTS   FOR   STUDYING    REPTILIA,  AMPHIBIA  AND    PISCES. 

In  the  latitude  of  southern  New  England  during  fifteen  or  twenty 
days  after  June  10th,  the  smaller  tortoises  may  be  found  about  sundown 
on  the  margins  of  the  ponds  and  streams  digging  holes  and  laying  their 
eggs;  the  larger,  as  Ghelydrti  serpentina,  doing  the  same  thing  about 
sunrise  in  the  morning.  Removing  the  eggs  carefully  without  turn- 
ing them  over,  they  may  be  placed  two  or  three  inches  deep  in  garden 
sand,  protected  with  net-work,  kept  moist,  and  so  the  progress  of 
embryonic  development  watched  till  they  hatch  in  September  or 
October,  by  examining  one  egg  at  a  time  every  two  or  three  weeks. 

The  Amphibia  may  be  studied  in  a  similar  way  by  transferring  frog 
and  toad  spawn,  found  in  streams  about  the  first  of  June,  to  a  glass 
vessel  of  water  containing  sand  and  pebbles.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
frogs'  eggs  are  in  a  glairy  mass  ;  toads'  eggs  in  a  glairy  string.  If  a 
female  newt  be  placed  in  the  vessel  with  some  growing  aquatic  plant 
like  spotted  knot- weed  (Polygonum  persicarla),  its  curious  habit  of 
folding  a  leaf  in  which  to  deposit  its  egg  may  be  observed,  and  in 
time  all  the  changes  pertaining  to  its  metamorphosis. 

Large^  Reptiles,  Amphibians  and  Fishes  may  be  skinned  and  pre- 
served according  to  the  directions  already  given  for  Mammals  and 
Birds.  Small  specimens  should  be  kept  in  alcohol,  after  making  an 
incision  low  down  on  the  side,  by  simply  inserting  a  penknife  at  as 
small  an  angle  to  the  surface  as  will  permit  the  point  to  enter  the 
cavity  of  the  abdomen.  After  a  few  days,  alcoholic  specimens  should 
be  changed  into  fresh  alcohol  at  least  80°  proof.  Glycerine  may  be 
substituted  for  alcohol,  when  it  is  desirable  to  preserve  the  colors. 


II.    SUBKINGDOM    ARTICULATA. 

General    Characteristics. — The  Articulates   (jointed) 
constitute  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  Animal  Kingdom. 

Fig.  3U6. 


An  Articulate. 


The  body  is  composed  of  a  series  of  rings,  formed  of  skin 
more  or  less  hardened  and  serving  for  a  skeleton  (Table,  p.  13). 


Fig.  SUl. 


Nervous  System  of  Insects. 


Each  segment  generally  has  its  nervous  ganglion,  which  acts 
independently  as  a  kind  of  local  brain. 


SUBKINGDOM. 


u  3 


f  RESPIRATION  BY  TRACHEA  OR  PULMONARY 
SACS. 
RESPIRATION  AQUATIC,  USUALLY  BY  GILLS; 


RED; 


LEGS  MORE  THAN  EIGHT. 
WITHOUT  JOINTED  LIMBS. 


GLASSES. 

Insecta,         Inseeta. 


j-  Crustacea,     Lobsters, 


CLASS. 

INSECTA. 


Vermes,          Worms. 
SUB-CLASSES. 

DISTINCT  HEAD,  THORAX,  AND  ABDOMEN;   i   Insecta       \  Fiiefs  etc_ 
WINGED,  LEGS  six.  j         proper,  f 

SEGMENTS  AND  MMBS  NUMEROUS,  WINGLESS.       Myriapoda,    Centipedes,  etc. 

HEAD  AND  THORAX  UNITED,  LEGS  EIGHT, 
WINGLESS. 


{•  Arachnida,   Spiders. 


CLASS   1.     iNSECTA. 


SUB-CLASS   I.— INSECTA   PROPER. 


Fig.  Sk8. 


General  Characteristics. — Insects  (cut  into)  have  the 
body  divided  into  three  portions — 
head,  thorax,  and  abdomen.  From 
the  head  proceed  two  little  stems 
called  antennce,  which  are  sup- 
posed to  be  organs  of  touch,  and 
perhaps  also  of  sound.  The  thorax 
is  composed  of  three  rings,  each 
bearing  a  pair  of  legs,  and  the 
second  usually,  and  the  third  some- 
times, in  addition,  a  pair  of  wings. 
The  abdomen  has  typically  eleven 
segments. 

Respiration  is  effected  by  a 
number  of  breathing  apertures  in 
each  side  of  the  body,  that  open 
into  tubes  (tracheoe),  formed  of  a 
spirally-rolled,  cartilaginous  fila- 
ment, communicating  freely  with 
one  another,  and,  in  their  last 
ramifications,  penetrating  the  sub- 
stance of  the  organs.  In  the  wings,  where  this 
network  of  horny  tubes  is  particularly  apparent, 
they  are  called  veinb  and  veinlets.  Inclosing  them 
is  a  larger  tube  filled  with  blood,  which  is  aerated 
by  absorbing  air  through  the  membranes  of  the 
tubes. 

The  Digestive  Apparatus  is  very  complicated, 
consisting  of  mandibles,  gullet,  stomach,  crop, 
gizzard,  intestines,  etc. 

The  Eyes  of  most  insects  are  compound,  consisting  of  a 
multitude  of  small  eyes*  (facets),  each  perfect  in  itself;  but 

*  The  number  of  these  facets  is  often  enormous — in  certain  kinds  of  beetles  it 
exceeds  twenty-five  thousand,  and  in  the  common  house-fly  it  is  four  thousand. 


Anatomy  of  External  Skeleton 
of  a  Winged  Insect. 


Fig. 


Trachea  of 
an  Insect. 


CLASS    INSECTA. 


205 


gome  have  simple  eyes  (ocelli), 
which  are  usually  placed  on 
the  top  of  the  head ;  and  some 
have  both  kinds. 

Fig.  SSL 


Fig.  S50. 


Facets  of  the  Eye  of  an  Insect. 

Metamorphosis. — The  young 
insect  passes  through  a  series 
of  changes  before  reaching  the 
form  of  the  adult.  Thus,  a 
moth,  on  emerging  from  the 
egg,  appears  as  a  larva  ;  if  with 
legs,  a  caterpillar;  if  without, 
a  grub  or  maggot.  Its  whole 
business  now  is  to  eat,  and 

hence  in  this  Stage  it  is  most  DIGESTORY  APPARATUS  OP    INSECTS.— 

injurious  to  vegetation.    After    S%VS5Ufi"S5; 

repeated    molts,  to    allow    for      g.  Gizzard;  h.  Stomach;  i.  Intestine; 

the  enlargement  of  its  body,  it 
usually  rolls  itself  into  a  co- 
coon and  becomes  a  pupa,  during  which  stage  it  remains 
quiet.  At  length,  the  time  varying  with  different  species,  it 
bursts  forth  an  imago.  It  is  now  furnished  with  wings,  and 

Fig.  S52. 


METAMORPHOSIS  or  AN  INSECT. — a.  Egg  /  b.  Larva, ;  c.  Pupa. 


SUBKIKGDOM    ARTICULATA. 


the  two  sexes  pairing,  eggs  for  the  next  generation  are  laid, 
and  the  parents  die.* 


FOUR,  MEMBRANOUS. 

FOUR,  SCALY 

TWO,  IN  SOME  SPECIES  WANTING. 

FOUR,  TWO  HORNY  AND  TWO  MEMBRANOUS. 

FOUR  GENERALLY,  SPARSELY  VEINED. 

FOUR,  ANTERIOR  THICKENED,  STRAIGHT. 

FOUR,     NET-VEINED,     POSTERIOR     GENERALLY 
LARGEST 


Hymenoptera,       Bee,  Wasp,  etc. 
Lepidoptera,          Butterfly,  MoOi,  etc 


Diptera, 
Coleoptera, 
Hemiptera, 
Orthoptera, 


Fly,  Mosquito,  etc. 


e,  etc. 
Cicada,  etc. 
Grasshopper,  etc. 


\  Neuroptera,  Dragon-fly,  etc. 


ORDER     HYMENOPTERA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Hymenopters  (mem- 
brane-winged) have  the  wings  coarsely  veined  and  the  ante- 
rior pair  hooked  to  the  posterior  in  flight.  The  females 
have  stings,  or  ovipositors,  and  the  social  instinct  is  highly 
developed. 

Apidae. — Honey-lees  are  of  three  sorts — queens  (females), 
drones  (males),  and  workers  (imperfectly-developed  females). 


Fig.  353. 


Fig.  35k. 


Fig.  855. 


Drone. 


Worker. 


In  each  swarm  is  one  queen,  which  lays  the  eggs  in  three 
broods :  the  first  producing  workers  ;  the  second,  drones ; 
and  the  third,  queens.  The  drones  are  the  idlers,  and  are 
killed  by  the  workers  after  the  pairing  season.  The  workers 
are  the  laborers ;  some  being  wax-producers ;  others,  builders ; 
and  others,  nurses.  Honey,  wax,  and  the  cement  used  by 

*  Although  the  majority  pass  through  this  complete  transformation,  some  are 
distinguished  from  the  larval  state  by  wings,  while  others  undergo  no  change 
except  in  size  from  the  egg  to  maturity. 


CLASS    INSECTA  I     ORDER    HYMENOPTERA.  207 

bees  to  stop  up  cracks  in  their  hives,  are  in  some  mysterious 
way  elaborated  out  of  materials  obtained  from  plants.  The 
various  classes  of  bees  are  hatched  in 
different-shaped  cells,  and  fed  with  pecu- 
liar food.  The  workers  and  drones  have 
horizontal  cells,  differing  only  in  size; 
but  queen-cells  are  larger,  vertical,  and 
open  downward.  When  the  population 
becomes  too  large,  a  portion  emigrate 
(swarm),  accompanied  by  the  old  queen.* 
The  Humble-bees  have  two  sorts  of 
females — large  and  small.  The  eggs  of 
the  former  produce  males,  females,  and 

*  A  swarm  of  bees  is  a  carefully-organized  community  where  the  division  of  labor 
is  carried  to  the  utmost  limit.  In  a  hive  containing  about  twenty  thousand  bees 
there  would  be  one  queen,  five  hundred  drones,  and  nineteen  thousand  five  hundred 
workers. — The  loss  of  the  queen  throws  everything  awry,  and  if  her  place  is  not 
supplied  the  hive  will  perish.  A  grub  is  selected,  its  cell  enlarged  to  royal  dimen- 
sions, and  the  stimulating  food  destined  for  the  queeja  fed  to  it.  In  sixteen  days  its 
transformation  to  a  queen' will  be  complete,  and  \t  will  be  ready  to  assume  the  royal 
functions.  As  but  one  queen  can  reign  in  a  hive,  the  young  queens  in  the  royal  cells 
are  carefully  guarded  until  it  is  settled  whether  there  will  be  new  swarms  sent  off.  If 
not,  then  the  olJ  queen  comes  in  and  stings  the  rest  to  death.  If  a  swarm  leaves 
under  her  care,  a  young  queen  is  released  which  at  once  tries  to  destroy  her  sisters, 
but  is  prevented  by  the  sentinels.  If  she  also  departs  with  a  swarm,  then  a  third 
queen  is  set  free.  Finally  the  reigning  queen  puts  to  death  her  remaining  rivals. 
When  a  swarm  is  to  start,  great  preparations  are  made  ;  scouts  are  sent  out  to  select 
a  suitable  place  for  the  new  settlement,  and  the  workers  gather  food  to  carry  with 
them.  At  a  signal  the  queen  starts  and  the  rest  follow,  lighting  wherever  she  stops, 
and  returning  if  she  goes  back. — Within  a  hive  all  is  bustle  and  hurry,  yet  all  is  order. 
Every  outlet  is  besieged.  Hundreds  of  bees  arrive  laden  with  provisions  and 
material.  Cautious  sentinels  scrutinize  every  arrival.  Purveyors,  anxious  to  be 
away  again,  stop  at  the  entrance  and  deliver  their  loads  to  other  bees.  Scavengers  clear 
the  hive  of  everything  which  would  impede  the  traffic,  or  injure  the  health  of  the 
inmates.  Workers  drag  out  the  bodies  of  their  dead  companions.  Any  rash  intruder 
is  stung  to  death,  and  if  he  cannot  be  removed  is  at  once  embalmed ;  if  it  be  a 
snail  that  can  retire  from  their  attacks  within  its  shell,  they  cement  it  close,  and  its 
house  becomes  its  tomb. — In  making  their  cells  the  bees  suspend  themselves  so  as  to 
form  hanging  festoons,  which  serve  as  bridges  for  the  workers  to  pass.  One  of  the 
bees  takes  rhe  flakes  of  wax  adhering  to  the  abdomen,  moistens  it,  kneads  it  with 
its  mandibles,  and  sticks  it  to  the  roof.  It  then  retires  and  another  does  the  same. 
Soon  shapeless  blocks  of  wax  depend.  A  second  set  of  workers  hollow  these  out 
and  shape  them  into  cells.  Meanwhile  new  ones  are  being  roughly  laid,  and  so  the 
work  goes  on  with  marvellous  .rapidity,  a  swarm  being  able  to  construct  four  thousand 
cells  within  twenty-four  hours.— Article  on  Bees  in  Appleton's  Cyclopaedia*  Wood's 
11  Homes  without  Hands,"  Rendre's  "  Tlntelligence  des  Betes,"  and  Reaumur's 
"  VHistoire  des  Insectes." 


SUB  KINGDOM    ARTICULATA. 


Fig.  357. 


Bombus,  Humble-bee  and  cells. 


workers;    those   of  the  latter  only  males.*    Late  in   the 

autumn,  all  die  except  the 
large  females,  which  pass 
the  winter  in  a  torpid 
condition.  Awaking  in 
the  spring,  each  sallies 
forth  to  seek  a  convenient 
place  and  found  a  new 
colony.  Within  half  an 
hour  she  will  make  a  cell, 
store  it  with  pollen  and 
honey,  and  deposit  a  few 
eggs.  On  hatching,  the 
larva  eats  the  pollen,  and 
shapes  for  itself  a  cell. 
Quickly  spinning  its  co- 
coon, it  passes  from  a  pupa 
to  an  imago.  Meanwhile  the  queen  continues  to  lay,  and, 
as  fast  as  the  workers  mature,  keeps  them  busy  in  aiding  her 
to  build  new  cells  and  tend  the  young. 

Formicidae. — The  Ants  are  a  numerous  family,  over  one 
thousand  species  having  been  described.  The  eggs  laid  by 
the  last  brood  of  females  each  summer  do  not  hatch  till 
spring,  when  they  are  cared  for  by  the  workers  that  alone, 
as  a  rule,  hibernate.  On  a  hot  day,  the  winged  males  and 
females  rise  into  the  air  in  vast  numbers,  pair,f  and  then 
separate,  the  males  to  die,  and  the  females  to  lose  their 
wings,  and,  entering  the  ground,  found  new  colonies. 

*  Tbe  male  Humble-bees,  like  those  of  the  Hive-bee,  are  harmless  and  may  be 
known  by  their  white  faces.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Wasps,  which  form  a  family, 
Vespidoe  of  the  Hymenoptera.  They  resemble  the  Bees  in  their  habits.  They  do  not, 
however,  secrete  wax;  but  scraping  wood  and  plants  with  their  mandibles  they 
manufacture  a  kind  of  papier  mache'  for  building  their  nests.  They  thus  made  paper 
long  before  man  had  learned  the  art. 

t  The  winged  ants  have  a  strong  disposition  to  desert  and  found  new  colonies. 
The  workers,  however,  are  on  the  watch  for  this,  and  their  sentinels  may  occasion- 
ally be  seen  dragging  back  a  deserter.  Sometimes  a  party  overtaking  a  queen  at  a 
distance  from  home,  do  not  return  but  establish  a  new  settlement.  The  eggs  are 
tended  by  the  queen  and  the  nurses  or  workers,  both  eggs  and  larvae  being  brought 
out  into  the  sun  every  pleasant  day.  As  they  are  frequently  seen  bearing  these  white- 


CLASS  INSECTA:    ORDEK  HYMENOPTERA.          209 


b  a 


a.  Egg  ;  b.  Larva  ;  c.  Pupa  of  Ants ;  d.  Ponera  grandis,  Giant  Ant ; 
P.  Formica  sanguin£a,  Red  Ant ;  G.  Myrmeda  forflcdta  ;    H.  Mntitta  cepkaldtos. 


looking  grains  about,  an  erroneous  idea  has  arisen  that  the  am*  lay  up  food  for 
winter.  The  habits  of  the  various  species  are  well  worth  study.  The  Agricultural 
Ants  of  Texas  have  a  tiny  farm,  where  they  cultivate  a  plant  (Arisfida  stricta}  whoee 
seed  they  harvest.  The  Sanguinary  Ants  are  warriors.  They  rob  their  neighbo-  s 
and  reduce  their  captives  to  abject  slavery,  compelling  them  to  do  all  their  work  for 
them,  "  to  lick  them,  brush  them,  carry  them  on  their  back,  and  feed  them."  The 
Foraging  Ants  hunt  in  vast  armies,  clearing  the  region  they  traverse  of  every  wing- 
less insect.  They  build  covered  ways  for  the  advance  of  their  columns,  and  in  one 
case  constructed  across  a  chasm  a  tubular  bridge  one-half  an  inch  in  diameter  and 
twelve  inches  long.  The  Leaf-cutting  Ants  dig  wells  in  search  of  water,  sometimes 
thirty  feet  deep.  In  one  place  they  dug  a  tunnel  under  the  river  Parahyba.  In  pome 
parts  of  Brazil  they  render  agriculture  almost  impossible  ;  they  undermine  buildings, 
carry  off  provisions  by  night,  and  strip  a  tree  of  all  its  leaves  in  a  day.  The  White 
Ants  (a  Neuropterous  insect,  Termes  betticosus}  of  the  tropics,  erect  conical  hills 
twelve  feet  high,  and  so  strong  that  the  buffaloes  use  them  for  watch-towers.  They 
destroy  furniture  and  even  houses.  They  have  been  known  in  a  single  night  to 
ascend  a  table-leg,  eat  the  contents  of  a  trunk  on  top,  and  descend  through  another 
leg.  The  female  lays  80,000  eggs  in  a  day,  yet  in  spite  of  this  fecundity  their  number 
is  kept  down,  because  man  and  beast  alike  feed  upon  them  as  a  dainty.  Read  Bell's 
"  Naturalist  in  Nicaragua,"  Popular  Science  Monthly,  July,  1875,  Bates's  "  Natural- 
ist on  the  Amazon,"  Figuier's  u  Insect  World,"  etc. 


210 


SUBKINGDOH     ARTICULATA. 


Cynipidae.  — The  Gall-fly 
produces  the  gall-nuts  used  in 
making  ink.  It  punctures  the 
leaves  and  other  parts  of  certain 
plants,  especially  the  oak,  and 
deposits  an  egg  in  the  wound, 
with  some  irritating  fluid  that 
causes  the  excrescence. 

Ichneumonidae  (hunter 
family). — The  Ichneumons 
number  more  than  six  thousand 
species.  Their  mission  is  to 
prevent  the  increase  of  other 
insects.  They  are  furnished 
with  an  auger  by  which  they 
introduce  their  eggs  underneath 
the  skin  of  caterpillars.  The 
maggots  feed  upon  the  body  of 
their  victims.  With  wonderful 
discrimination,  however,  they 
consume  only  the  adipose  part, 

and  spare  its  vitals  until  they  are  themselves  ready  to  enter 

the  pupa  state. 

Fig.  360. 


Cynips  quercus-folii,  Gall-fly. 


Ichneumon  manifettator, 
Ichneumon  Fly  depositing  its  eggs  in  the  larvae  at  the  bottom  of  the  holes. 


CLASS  INSECTA:  OKDER  LEPIDOPTERA. 


Fig.  861. 


ORDER     LEPIDOPTERA. 

General  Characteristics.  —  The  Lepidopters  (scale- 
winged)  have  wings  covered  with  colored  scales,  that  come 
off  at  the  slightest  touch.  These  are  so  minute  that  four 
hundred  thousand  have 
been  counted  on  a  single 
msect.  The  larvae  are  all 
Caterpillars,  with  legs  on 
the  thorax  and  not  on 
the  abdomen.  The  But' 
terflies  have  knobbed  an- 
tennae, and  hold  their 
wings  upright  when  at 
rest.  The  Moths  have 
antennas  feathery  and 
variously  shaped,  but 
never  knobbed.  They 
usually  spin  cocoons,  the 
metamorphosis  being 
complete. 

P  a  p  i  1  i  o  nidae.  —  The 
Butterflies  *  are  strictly 
diurnal,  and  produce  cat- 
erpillars destructive  to 
foliage. 

Sphingidae.  —  The 
Sphinges  (moths)  usually. 
fly  in  the  twilight  or 

night.      ^^Deaths-head 

Moth,  so  called  because  on  the  back  of  its  thorax  there  is  a 

*  Their  long,  tongue-like  proboscis  consists  of  two  threads,  each  a  semi-canal, 
•which  unite  to  form  a  tuhe  for  thrusting  into  flowers  to  extract  their  sweet  juices. 
When  not  in  use  it  can  be  coiled  up  like  a  watch-spring.  The  Lepidopter's  flitting 
flight  aids  in  escaping  its  enemies.  The  number  and  variety  of  this  beautiful  family 
make  it  the  delight  of  the  student,  while  the  wonderful  transformation  from  the 
crawling  worm  to  the  brilliant  insect,  affords  an  ever  welcome  and  touching  type  of 
the  final  release  of  the  soul  of  man  from  the  darkness  of  the  grave. 


Butterfly. 


212 


SUBKINGDOM    AKTICULATA. 


rough  figure  of  a  human  skull,  emits  a  plaintive  squeal, 
when  disturbed. 


362. 


Acheronfta  atr&pos,  Death's-head  Moth 


Bombycidae. — The  Common  Silk-worm  spins  its  thread 
from  a  spinneret  placed  near  the  mouth.  Its  cocoon  is 
formed  by  the  larva  attaching  a  few  threads  lengthwise  to 
adjacent  objects,  and  then  turning  itself  around,  thickening 
the  walls  with  a  continuous  thread,  often  one  thousand  feet 
long.  The  Tent  Caterpillar  deposits  its  eggs  in  a  bunch 


Fig.  MS. 


Mg.  36U. 


\> 


Bombyx  mori. 
Silk-worm  Moth  and  Cocoon. 


(  'lisiocampa  americana, 
A  ent  Caterpillar.    Eggs,  Larva,  Imago 


CLASS  IKSECTA:    ORDER  DIPTERA.  213 

around  the  twigs  of  trees.  The  insect,  hatching  in  April  or 
May,  weaves  a  spider-like  net,  into  which  it  retires  at  noon 
and  night.  As  it  goes  forth  to  feed,  it  marks  its  track  by  a 
thread  as  a  clue  for  its  return,  and  to  give  a  foothold  on 
leaves  and  smooth  places. 

ORDER    DIPTERA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Dipters  (two-winged) 
number  in  North  America  about  ten  thousand  species.  The 
larvae  are  footless  maggots,  and  go  through  a  complete  trans- 
formation. 

Fig.  365. 


CiUexpipiens,  Mosquito.    Female,  Male,  and  Transformations. 

Culicidse  (gnat  family). — The  Mosquito  lays  its  eggs,  two 
or  three  hundred  in  number,  in  the  water.  On  hatching, 
they  become  "  Wiggle-tails"  These  breathe  by  means  of  a  long 


SUBKINGDOM    ARTICULATA. 


tube  on  the  last  segment  of  the  body,  till  they  change  into 
the  pupa  state,  when  respiration  is  transferred  to  two  tubes 
in  the  thorax.  Assuming  the  imago  state,  they  burst  through 
their  envelopes,  and  rise  from  the  water  perfect  insects. 
There  are  three  or  four  generations  in  a  season.  The  female 
alone  has  a  piercing  proboscis,  which  for  fineness  is  to  the 
point  of  a  needle  as  that  is  to  a  sword.* 

Fig.  366. 


Ceddomyia  destructor,  Hessian  Fly ;  C.  triftti,  Wheat  Midge ; 

Larvce  of  latter  feeding  in  wheat-flowers,  magnified. 

Cecidomyida3  (high-leaping  family). — The  Hessian  and 
the  Wheat  Fly  are  injurious  to  wheat,  some  species  by  attack- 
ing the  flower  and  some  the  stalk. 

Muscidae. — Flies  can  walk  upon 
smooth  surfaces  overhead,  because  the 
broad  disc  of  the  foot  secretes  a  vis- 
cid fluid,  by  which  they  adhere.  In 
the  imago  state  there  is  no  growth,  so 
that  smaller  and  larger  specimens  of 
flies  are  different  species,  f 


Fig.  367. 


Foot  of  House-fly. 


*  Its  minute  wound  should '  quickly  heal;  but 
whether  the  irritation  results  from  the  injection  of 
a  poisonous  liquid,  or  from  the  barbed  proboscis,  as 
well  as  how  its  hum  is  produced,  are  unsettled  ques- 
tions. 

t  The  common  House-fly  is  an  importation  from 
Europe,  and  according  to  Packard  (American  Nat- 
uralist, Aug.,  1876)  its  life  may  be  summed  up  as 
follows :  "  It  lives  one  day  in  the  egg  state,  hatched 
in  the  ordure  of  stables ;  from  five  days  to  a  week  as 
a  maggot ;  from  five  to  seven  days  in  the  pupa  state, 
— in  all  from  ten  to  fourteen  days  in  the  month  of 


CLASS  INSECTA:  ORDER  COLEOPTERA. 


215 


Pulicidae.— The  Fleas  are  wingless  Dipters. 
dergo  a  complete  metamorpho-  ~    s 

sis,  and  the  imago  possesses 
rudimentary  wings.  Their 
tough  skin  makes  it  difficult  to 
crush  them  between  the  fingers, 
while  their  wonderful  muscular 
power  enables  them  to  jump 
two  hundred  times  their  length, 
and  to  draw  a  hundred  times 
their  weight.f 


They  un- 


Pulex  irntans,  Human  Flea. 


ORDER    COLEOPTERA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Coleopters  (sheath- 
winged)  have  the  an- 
terior wings  (elytra) 
of  a  horny  texture, 
and  the  posterior, 
membranous.  The 
latter  are  the  sole 
organs  of  flight.  The 
mandibles  are  very 
strong,  and  often 
armed  with  acute 
teeth  on  the  inner 
margin.  Their  met- 

Lachnozternafusca,  May-beetle.  amorphosis    is     COm- 


August,— before  the  winged  adult  period.  Most  of  those  which  are  born  in  August 
live  for  a  month  or  six  weeks,  and  die  at  the  coming  of  frost.  A  few  probably  winter 
over  and  survive  until  mid-summer,  and  thus  maintain  the  existence  of  this  useful 
species,  to  which  civilized  man  owes  more  than  he  can  readily  estimate,  and  with 
which  he  can  dispense  only  when  the  health  of  our  cities  and  towns  is  looked  after 
with  far  greater  vigilance  and  intelligence  than  is  perhaps  likely  to  be  the  case  for 
several  centuries  to  come." 

*  Horse-ticks,  sheep-ticks,  bird-ticks,  bat-ticks,  bee-lice,  etc.,  are  other  anomalous 
forms  of  Diptera. 

t  Pleas  have  been  trained  to  show  their  strength  and  docility.  The  so-called 
"  learned  fleas,"  exhibited  in  Paris,  went  through  military  evolutions,  standing  on 
their  hind  legs  and  shouldering  tiny  spears  :  and  two  of  them  drew  a  companion  in 
a  little  wagon,  a  fourth  sitting  on  the  coachman's  box  and  wielding  the  whip.  The 
Spectators  viewed  this  wonderful  exhibition  through  magnifying  glasses. 


816 


SUBKINGDOM    ARTICULATA. 


pjete,  the  soft  larvae  usually  having  a  horny  head  with  sim- 
ple eyes  and  distinct  jaws. 

Scarabaeidae  (cased). — The  May-beetle,  or  Dor-bug,  lays 
its  eggs  in  the  ground  during  May  or  June.  They  hatch  in 
about  three  months.  The  larva,  called  by  farmers  the 
"  white-worm,"  grows  to  the  size  of  the  little  finger,  devour- 
ing voraciously  every  kind  of  vegetable.  After  remaining 
some  years  in  this  state,  passing  the  winter  in  the  ground 
below  frost,  it  changes  to  a  p.upa,  emerges  a  beetle,  lays  its 
eggs,  and  dies. 

Fig.  S70. 


Luc&nus  cervus,  Stag-beetle,  Europe. 

Lucanidse. — The  Horn-lugs*  lay  their  eggs  under  the 

*  So  strong  are  the  jaws  of  Stag-beetles  that  one  has  been  known  to  gnaw  a  hole 
an  inch  in  diameter  through  the  side  of  an  iron  canister. 


CLASS  INSECTA:  OKDEK  COLEOPTERA. 


217 


bark  at  the  roots  of  trees,  and  their  metamorphosis  goes  on 
within  the  trunk. 
Silphidse. — The   Burying-beetles  dig  underneath  small 

Fig.  871. 


Necrophonis  vestigator  burying  a  Mouse. 

dead  animals — mice,  birds,  etc. — and  soon  bury  them  as  pro- 
vision for  their  young. 

Cerambycidae. — The  Long-horns  have  filiform,  recurved 
antennae,  often  much  longer  than  the  body.  Their  eggs  are 
laid  in  crevices  of  bark,  and  the  larvae  bore  into  the  hardest 
wood,  oftentimes  destroying  whole  forests.  To  this  family 
belongs  the  destructive  "  apple-tree  borer."  * 

Scolytidae. — The  Baric-borers  cause  great  devastation 
among  trees  by  digging,  just  beneath  the  bark,  radiating 

*  To  tbe  family  Chrysomelidae  belongs  the  Striped  Squash  Beetle  (ZHabrofica 
vittata),  a  yellow  bug  which  attacks  the  vines  as  soon  as  they  are  up. 


218 


SUBKINGDOM    ARTICULATA. 


Mg.  372. 


.  373. 


Ceram&yx  moschatus, 
Long-horned  Musk  Beetle. 


Scolfitus  destructor, 
Bark-borer. 


Fig.  37U. 


galleries  bearing  a  rude  resemblance  to  written  characters,  an 
egg  being  placed  at  the  termination 
of  each  gallery. 

Curculionidae.  —  The  Weevils 
have  a  long  proboscis  for  boring 
holes  in  which  to  deposit  their 
eggs.  Different  species  attack  every 
part  of  a  plant.  The  Plum-weevil 
makes  a  crescent-shaped  incision 
into  a  plum,  and  its  egg  hatches  a 
whitish  grub  that  soon  penetrates 
to  the  kernel  of  the  fruit.  Bren- 
tlms  attacks  hazel-nuts. 

Dytiscidse. — The  Water-beetles 
are  oval  in  form,  and  have  strongly- 
fringed  hind-legs  for  swimming. 
The  larvae  are  called  "  Water- tigers/' 
as  their  scissor-like  jaws  enable 
them  to  snip  off  the  tails  of  tad- 
poles, and  even  hold  on  to  young 
fishes  while  sucking  their  blood. 
On  assuming  the  pupa  state,  they 


CLASS    INSECTA:     OBDEE    HEMIPTEEA.  219 

Fig.  375. 


Dytiscus  fasciventris,  Water-beetle  and  Larva  of  Water-beetle.    "  Water-tiger." 

crawl  upon  the  land,  construct  a  round  cell,  and  come  forth 
as  beetles. 


ORDER     HEMIPTERA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Heraipters  (half- winged) 
have  fore  wings  half  leathery  and  half  membranous ;  usually 
both  ocelli  and  compound  eyes ;  and  a  suctorial  mouth.  The 
metamorphosis  is  incomplete. 

Cicadidae. — The  Harvest-fly  family  includes  the  "Seven- 
teen-year Locusts."  *  The  females,  with  a  saw-like  oviposi- 
tor, furrow  the  twigs  of  both  forest  and  orchard  trees  longi- 
tudinally to  the  length  of  fifteen  or  eighteen  inches,  piercing 
every  two-thirds  of  an  inch  to  the  pith,  and  depositing  two 

*  They  appear  in  different  localities  annually,  but  in  any  one  only  once  in  seven- 
teeu  years.  C.  V.  Riley  states  that  there  is  a  "  Thirteen-year  Locust." 


220 


SUBKIKGDOM    ARTICULATA. 


eggs,  side  by  side,  with  a  thin  layer  of  woody  fibre  between. 
The  larvae,  on  hatching,  drop  to  the  ground,  in  which  they 

live  for  seven- 
teen years,  feed- 
ing   upon    the 
roots  of   trees. 
When  ready  to 
enter  the  pupa 
state,  they 
make  cylindrical  burrows? 
cemented  water-tight,  and 
at  length  issuing  forth,  in 
appearance  like  the  imago 
except  the  want  of  wings, 
attach  themselves  to  any 
object  at  hand,  particular- 

Jn  fl 


Dru 


Seventeen-year  Locust. 


short  time,  the  thorax  splitting  on  the  back, 
the  perfect  imago  crawls  out  ;  after  pairing, 
the  female  deposits  its  eggs,  and  the  male 
fills  the  air  with  the  noise  of  the  ear- 
piercing  kettle-drum  beneath  its  wings.* 

Coreidae.-r-The  Squash-bug  hibernates 
in  crevices,  but  lays  its  eggs  on  the  under 
side  of  squash  leaves.  The  young  brood 
are  of  a  pale  ash  color,  and,  after  molting 
several  times,  appear  in  their  perfect  state 
with  wings  and  wing-covers. 

A  p  h  i  d  ae  (exhausters).  —  Plant-lice  f 
have  a  wonderful  life-history.  The  eggs 


Fig.  377. 


Coreus  tristis, 
Squash-bug. 


*  This  apparatus  is  concealed  under  two  valves  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
abdominal  cavity.  The  membrane  of  the  drum-head  is  thin,  brittle,  and  slightly 
wrinkled.  There  is  a  muscle  attached  to  it  on  the  inner  side.  By  contracting 
this,  the  drum-head  is  drawn  in,  but  on  relaxing,  it  springs  back  of  itself, 
thus  producing  the  familiar  clicking  noise  of  the  Cicada.  The  pupil  can 
easily  make  a  dissection  of  the  insect,  and  examine  the  apparatus  for 
himself. 

t  Nothing  can  be  more  amusing  than   to  watch  the  plant-lice  for  half  an  hour, 


CLASS    LNSECTA:     OKDER    HEMIPTEEA. 


221 


Fig.  378. 


deposited    on  the  plants    in    the  autumn    hatch    in    the 

spring  asexual  and  wingless  individuals.     These  produce 

living    young,   likewise    asexual,    in    succession,    often    to 

the  twelfth  generation.     At  the  close  of  summer,  winged 

and  sexual  ones  appear.     These  pairing, 

their  eggs  do  not  hatch  until  the  following 

spring.     This   method  of   propagation   is 

called  Parthenogenesis.    It  has  been  calcu- 

lated that  a  single  Aphis  will  produce  a 

billion  joung  in  a  summer.    One  species 

(Eriosoma  lanigera),  covered  with  a  woolly, 

flocculent  substance,  causes  the  apple-blight  by  stinging  the 

bark,  when  the  leaves  turn  yellow  and  drop  off. 


Fig.  379. 


Acrydkum  aleutactum,  Leather-colored  Locust  (upper  figure). 
Cyrtophyllus  concavus.  Katydid  (lower  figure). 


while  gorging  themselves  with  the  honey  extracted  from  the  tender  bark,  and 
observe  the  treatment  they  receive  from  the  ants,  which  keep  them,  as  we  do  cows, 
extracting  from  them  a  sweet  liquid  of  which  they  are  very  fond. 


222 


SUBKIKGDOM    ARTICULATA. 


ORDER  ORTHOPTERA. 

General  Characteristics.— The  Orthopters  (straight- 
winged)  have  strong,  horny,  and  toothed  mandibles  for  biting. 
The  anterior  wings  are  of  a  leathery  texture ;  the  posterior, 
membranous  and  folding,  like  a  fan.  The  legs  vary  much  in 
form  and  size,  in  some  families  the  anterior  pair  being  greatly 
enlarged  for  seizing,  and  in  others  the  posterior  for  leaping. 
The  metamorphosis  is  incomplete,  the  young  resembling  the 
parents,  except  in  size  and  the  want  of  wings. 

Locustidae. — The  Katydid  is  silent  during  the  day,  but 
musical  throughout  the  night.  Its  familiar  notes  are  pro- 
duced by  the  friction  of  the  bases  of  the  wings  upon  each 
other. 

Mg.  380, 


Gryllotalpa  vulgftris,  Mole  Cricket. 

G-ryllidae. — The  Mole  Cricket  has  its  anterior  extremitic 
shaped  like  those  of  the  mole,  for  constructing  subterranean 
galleries. 

Acrydidae. — The  " Grasshoppers"  or  Locusts  of  the 
Western  States,  belong  to  this  family.  They  come  in  such 
multitudes  as  to  give  sunlight  the  yellow  tinge  of  dense 
smoke,  and  to  eat  a  large  field  of  grain  in  an  hour. 


CLASS  LNSECTA:    ORDEK,   NEUROPTERA. 


Forficula 

auricularia, 

Earwig. 


Fig. 


Forficulidae.— The   Earwig  *    sits   upon        r^-  38L 
its  eggs  till  they  are  hatched,  and  then  broods 
its  young  as  a  hen  does  its  chickens. 

ORDER  NEUROPTERA. 

General  Characteristics.  —  The  Neu- 
roptera  (nerve- winged)  have  an  elongated 
body  with  four  membranous  wings  of  beau- 
tiful network,  minutely  subdivided.  The 
metamorphosis  is  not  always  complete.  None 

of  them  are  injurious  to  living 
plants. 

LibeHulidae. — The  Dragon- 
fly (or  Devil's  Darning- 
needle)  has  very  large  com- 
pound eyes  and  also  three 
ocelli  on  the  top  of  the  head. 
It  feeds  upon  mosquitoes,  flies, 
etc.  It  has  no  sting,  and  is 
perfectly  harmless.  The  larvae 
pass  through  their  transforma- 
tions in  the  water. 

Myrmeleonidse. — The 
Ant-lion  in  repose  folds  its 
wings  like  a  roof  upon  the 
sides  of  the  body.  The  larvas 
dig  funnel-shaped  pitfalls  in 
the  sand,  and  lie  concealed  at 
the  bottom,  snapping  up  any 
insect  that  tumbles  in,  and 
even  tossing  a  shower  of  sand 
to  destroy  the  foothold  of  any 
victim  that  tries  to  escape  up 
the  sloping  sides.  (Fig.  383.) 


Libellula  depressa,  Calapttryx  virgo, 
Larva  of  Dragon-fly. 


*  This  insect  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  "  Thousand-legs,"  which  bears  the 
same  popular  name.  The  term  Earwig  should  be  Ear-wing,  their  large  wings  when 
expanded  having  the  shape  of  ears. 


224: 


SUBKINGDOM    ABTICULATA. 


Myrmel2on  obsolZtus,  Larva,  Imago  and  Pit-fall  of  Aut-lion. 


HINTS    FOR    PRESERVING    INSECTS. 

A  small  hand-net,  which  can  be  easily  made  of  gauze  by  any  pupil 
will  be  of  great  use  in  catching  insects.  Butterflies  may  be  killed  b.y 
a  gentle  squeeze  under  the  wings,  or  better  by  a  drop  of  chloroform  or 
ether  applied  with  a  camel's-hair  brush  to  the  proboscis  or  the  sides  oJ 
the  abdomen.  Beetles  should  be  dropped  into  alcohol,  ether  or  ben- 
zine  ;  when  dead,  they  may  be  taken  out  and  a  pin  thrust  through  the 
right  wing-cover  near  the  thorax.  Pin  other  insects  through  the  mid 
die  of  the  back,  fastening  the  wings  in  place,  if  large,  with  strips  of 
paper  pinned  across  each  one.  When  dry,  transfer  to  a  tight  shallow 
box  with  a  glass  cover.  Bits  of  camphor-gum  kept  in  the  box  will 
prevent  the  ravages  of  Dermestes  and  Anthrenus.  (See  Index.) 


CLASS  MYBIAPODA:   OEDER  DIPLOPODA.          225 


SUB-CLASS    II.     MYRIAPODA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Myriapods  (ten-thou- 
sand-footed) are  worm-like  in  appearance,  and  have  the  head 
free  and  the  thorax  merged  in  the  abdomen. 

f  EACH  SEGMENT  WITH  A  SINGLE  >  chil      d  ^       ^  Centipede,  etc. 

PAIR  OF   FEET.  5 

MYRIAPODA.  ^ 

EACH  SEGMENT  WITH  TWO      )  Diplopoda<        Thouiand-leffged  Worm,etc 


PAIRS    OF   FEET. 


ORDER     CHILOPODA. 

General  Characteristics.— The  Chilopods  (lip-footed) 
are  distinguished  for  their  predatory  habits  and  venomous 
bites.  They  feed  upon  earth-worms. 

Fig.  38k. 


Scolopendra  gigantta,  Centipede. 


Scolopendridae.  —  The    well-known    Centipede   of   the 
Southern  States  is  the  type  of  this  family. 

ORDER     DIPLOPODA. 

General    Characteristics.  —  The    Diplopods    (double 
footed)  have  the  mouth  modified  for  eating  plants.    They 

Fig.  385. 


Julus  canadensis,  Thousand-legs. 


226 


SUBKINGDOM    AETICULATA. 


are  harmless,  and  beneficial  in   destroying  dead  vegetable 
matter. 

Julidae  (down-like). — The  "  TJwusand-legs  "  being  slow- 
moving,  when  alarmed,  coils  its  body  in  a  ring,  with  the  tail 
in  the  centre  and  the  feet  entirely  concealed. 


SUB-CLASS    III.     ARACHNIDA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Arachnids  (spider-like) 
have  the  head  and  thorax  amalgamated ;  ocelli  from  two  to 
eight;  and  four  pairs  of  legs.  They  molt  six  times  in 
coming  to  maturity,  but  undergo  no  metamorphosis. 


ARACHNIDA.^ 


ABDOMEN   WITHOUT    SEGMENTS  AND  JOINED     BY 

A  SLENDER  PEDICEL  TO   THE 

CErHALO-THORAX. 


ABDOMEN  WITH  SEGMENTS  AND  INDISTINCTLY 
UNITED  TO  THE  CEPHALO-THORAX. 


ABDOMEN  WITHOUT  SEGMENTS  AND  MERG 
WITH  THE  CEPHALO-THORAX. 


>-  Aranese, 

>•  Pedipalpi,    Scorpion,  etc. 
ED      L  Acarina,      Mite,  etc. 


ORDER     ARANE^E, 

General  Characteristics. — Spiders  have  neither  com- 
pound eyes  nor  antennae.  They  possess  a  prehensile  organ, 
with  a  hook  at  the  end,  through  which  issues  a  poison  fatal 

Fig.  386. 


Spider's  Thread^ 


Spider's  Claw. 


CLASS  ARACHNIDA:    ORDER  ARAKE^:.  227 

to  the  animals  upon  which  they  feed.*  At  the  posterior 
extremity  there  are  four  to  six  projections,  spinnerets,  pierced 
oftentimes  with  a  thousand  holes,  through  which  flow  little 
streams  of  gluey  matter,  that  harden  on  exposure  to  the  air, 
and  uniting,  form  a  single  thread,  f  Some  species  emit  the 
threads  freely  into  the  air,  till  their  buoyancy  will  sustain 
them  in  a  balloon-flight,  or,  the  ends  adhering  to  some  dis- 
tant object,  a  bridge  is  formed  by  which  they  can  pass  over 
streams  and  ditches. 


Epelra  diadlma,  Geometrical  Spider. 

Araneidae.  —The  Geometrical  Spider  is  so  called  from  the 
regularity  of  the  radiating  and  circular  lines  of  its  web. 
Mygalidse  — The  Mason  Spider  constructs  a  subterranean 

*  This  is  injurious  to  man  only  when  the  system  is  predisposed  to  erysipelas,  etc., 
even  a  mosquito  bite  then  being  poisonous. 

t  The  union  of  the  threads  is  effected  by  a  skillful  manipulation  of  the  hind  feet, 
the  comb-like  structure  of  the  claws  being  peculiarly  adapted  for  this  purpose.  The 
silk  of  some  genera  is  produced  in  great  quantity.  Thus  Dr.  B.  Q.  Wilder  wound 
several  miles  of  threads  from  the  spinnerets  of  the  NepKila  plumlpes  found  near 
Charleston.  See  Harper's  Magazine,  vol.  xxxiv,  p.  450 ;  also  vol.  xxii,  p.  323. 


228 


SUBKIKGDOM    ARTICULATA. 


residence.  This  is  closed  with  a  water-tight  trap-door, 
having  an  elastic  hinge,  the  outside 
mimicking  the  soil  around,  and  held 
down  with  the  whole  force  of  the 
spider's  claws  fastened  on  the  side 
of  the  door  opposite  the  hinge. 

ORDER     PEDIPALPI. 

General  Characteristics. — The 
Pedipalpi  (foot-feelers)  have  large 
maxillary  palpi  and  the  jointed  ab- 
domen prolonged  sometimes  into  a 
tail.* 

Scorpionidae. — Tne  Scorpion  has  a  powerful  poison-sting 
i  the  end  of  its  tail-like  abdomen,  which  wounds  by  curving 

Fig.  390. 


Nest  of  MygcUe. 


Buthus  carolini&nm,  Scorpion.    \. 

over  the  back,  while  the  victim  is  held  between  the  forceps- 
like  feelers.  Its  wounds  are  rarely  fatal,  the  antidote  being 
hartshorn. 

ORDER     ACARINA. 

General  Characteristics.  —  The  Acarina  have  the 
mouth  adapted  either  for  sucking  or  biting.  They  are  of 
small  size,  and  generally  parasitic. 

Acaridae. — The  ItcJi-mite,  burrowing  in  the  flesh,  multi- 

*  The  Phalangidse  include  the  Harvest-man  or  "  Daddy-long-legs  "  (not  the  crane- 
fly),  which  is  carnivorous,  feeding  especially  upon  the  Aphidse,  and  is  hence  very 
beneficial. 


CLASS    CRUSTACEA.  229 

plies  rapidlv,  and  produces  the  loathsome  disease  to  which  it 
gives  name. 

Fig.  392. 


Fig.  391. 


Ixodes  bovis,  Western  Cattle  Tick. 

Ixodidse. — Ticks  infest    man  and 
beast  in  great  variety.     Quickly  bury- 
ing themselves  beneath  the  skin,  they 
itch-mite,  magnified.       ^^^  readily  be  extracted   without 

leaving  behind  portions  of  their  claws,  which,  if  allowed  to 
remain,  soon  produce  inflammation  and  serious  ulcers. 


CLASS   II.    CRUSTACEA. 

General  Characteristics.  —  The  Crustaceans  (hard- 
covering)  are  articulate  animals  with  jointed  appendages 
and  essentially  aquatic  respiration.  The  body  typically  con- 
sists of  twenty  segments,  though  some  species  have  sixty 
ind  some  only  ten.  The  hard  exterior  crust  not  yielding 
for  growth,  frequent  moultings  are  necessary,  which  are 
effected  by  the  shell  splitting  open,  generally  on  the  back, 
and  the  animal  crawling  out.  The  heart,  when  it  exists,  is 
on  the  back,  immediately  under  the  shell.  The  nervous 
system  lies  on  the  under  surface.  In  their  growth  from  the 
egg  they  undergo  the  most  astonishing  changes,  the  young 
in  no  way  resembling  the  adult.  The  Crustacea  are  mostly 
marine ;  some,  however,  live  in  fresh  water,  and  a  few  in 
damp  places  on  the  land. 


230 


AKT1CULATA. 


CLASS  CKUSTACEA:    ORDER  DECAPODA. 


231 


CRUSTACEA. 


LEGS  TEN. 
LEGS  FOURTEEN. 
LEGS  LAMELLATE. 
LEGS  ABORTED. 
ANIMALS  ATTACHED. 

LEGS  ANSWERING  FOR  JAWS. 


Decapoda, 

Tetradecapoda, 

Phyllopoda, 

Siphonostoma, 

Cirripedia, 

Merostomata, 


Crab,  Lobster. 
Been  h  Flea. 
Brine  Shrimps. 
Fish  Lice. 
Barnade. 
Horse-shoe  Crab. 


ORDER     DECAPODA. 

General  Characteristics.—  The  Decapods  (ten-footed) 
nave  the  anterior  portion  of  the  body  covered  with  a  single 
piece  called  the  carapax,  the  gills  attached  to  the  anterior 
feet,  and  the  eyes  situated  on  movable  peduncles. 


Fig.  39k. 


Astdcus  Jtuviafilis,  Cray-fish  or  River  Lobster. 

The  Brachyura  (short-tailed)  have  the  abdomen  small 
and  folded  under  the  thorax.  The  anterior  pair  of  feet  are 
furnished  with  pincers.  The  Crab  (Fig.  393)  is  an  example. 

The  Macrura  (long-tailed)  have,  as  in  the  Lobster  and 
Cray-fish,  the  abdomen  large  and  extended.* 

*  The  Fiddler  Crab  when  alarmed  holds  up  in  front  its  big  claw  in  a  threatening  way. 
The  Sand  Crab  runs  to  its  hole  so  swiftly  as  to  be  overtaken  with  difficulty.  The 


232 


SUBKIHGDOM    ABTICULATA. 


a.  T^rilrux  locusta  ; 
b.  Orchestra  longicornis,  Sand-fleas. 


ORDER     TETRADECAPODA. 

General  Characteristics.— The  Tetradecapods  (four- 
teen-footed)  have  sessile 
(low-sitting)  eyes  and 
all  the  segments  of  the 
thorax  free. 

The  Amp  bipods 
Lave  the  four  anterior 
pairs  of  feet  directed 
forward  and  the  three 
posterior  backward. 
They  live  in  both  salt 
and  fresh  water,  and 
are  abundant  on  the 
sea-shore  between  tide- 
marks.  (Fig.  395.) 

The  Isopods  have  a  flattened  body,  Fig.  395. 

the  three  anterior  pairs  of  feet  directed 
forward  and  the  four  posterior  pairs  A 
backward.     The  gills  are  borne  under 
the  abdomen.     Soiv-bugs  are  familial- 
examples. 


ORDER  PHYLLOPODA. 

General  Characteristics.  —  The 
Phyllopods  have  from  10  to  60  pairs 
of  leaf-like  feet,  answering  the  purpose 
of  gills.  They  are  found  in  both  salt 
and  fresh  water.  Fig.  396  represents 
a  species  discovered  by  Dr.  E.  Coues, 
in  small  prairie  pools  in  Montana. 


LepidUms  couesii. 


Hermit  Crab  Is  protected  only  in  front,  and  eo  "backs'"  into  the  spiral  shells  oi 
other  Mollusks,  leaving  its  temporary  home  only  when  outgrown.  The  Marine 
Lobster  has  a  broad  fin  at  the  base  of  its  tail,  by  one  stroke  of  which  it  can  spring 
backward  twenty  feet. 


CLASS  CRUSTACEA:    ORDER  CIRRIPEDIA. 


233 


ORDER     SIPHONOSTOMA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Siphonostoma  (suck- 
ing-month) in  their  early  stages  have  eyes,  jointed  limbs, 
and  swim  freely,  but  when  adult  they  are  attached  to  fish, 
and  live  mainly  on  the  mucus  which  covers  their  host.  A 
permanent  hold  is  secured  by  insinuating  their  barb-like 
head  into  the  flesh,  often  the  eye.  (Fig.  397.) 


Fig.  897. 


Fig. 


LernceoriZma  spratti, 
Sprat-sucker,  attached  to  eye  of  Sprat. 


Baldnus  crenatw,  Acorn  Barnacle. 


ORDER     CIRRIPEDIA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Cirripeds  (curl-footed) 
in  their  early  stages  have  eyes,  antennae,  and  limbs.  After 
swimming  about  for  a  while  they  attach  themselves  to  any 
solid  substance,  the  eyes  become  rudimentary  and  the 
antennae  obsolete.  The  thoracic  feet  by  constant  motion 
create  currents  of  water  which  float  food  to  the  animal's 
mouth. 

Balanidae. — The   Acorn   Barnacle  is   sessile,   the  shell 


234 


SUBKIKGDOM    ARTICULATA. 


ffig.  400. 


containing  the  soft  parts  being  cemented  directly  to  a  rock, 
a  pile,  or  a  ship's  bottom.    It  consists  of  a  short  tube  with  a 

lid  of  four  pieces  between 
which  the  feet  (cirri)  are 
thrust  when  in  search  of 
food.  (Fig.  398.) 

Lepadidae.  —  The 
Stalked  Barnacle  is  pedun- 
culate, having  the  shell 
(capitulum)  containing  the 
soft  parts  on  the  extremity 
of  a  long  flexible  stem.  In 
cleaning  the  hull  of  the 
Great  Eastern  several  years 
ago,  over  three  hundred 

or£amacle.  ^      Qf 

found  attached  to  it.     (Figs.  399,  400,  401 ) 


Lepas  anatifera^  Stalked  Barnacles. 


CLASS    VEEMES:     ORDER    MEROSTOMATA. 


235 


ORDER     MEROSTOMATA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Merostomata  (thigh- 
mouths)  have  the  limbs  placed  around  the  mouth  and  use 
the  basal  joints  for  jaws,  whence  the  name  of  the  order. 

Limulidae. — Limulus,  the  Horse-shoe  Crab?  is  the  only 


Mg. 


Fig.  W3. 


Limulus  mollucclnus,  Horse-shoe  Crab. 


Under  Surface  of  Limulus. 


genus  now  living.     "When  moulting,  the  shell  splits  along  the 
anterior  border  and  not  down  the  back  as  in  other  Crustacea. 


CLASS   III.    VERMES. 

General  Characteristics.— The  Vermes  (worms)  are 
articulated  animals  without  jointed  limbs,  their  place  being 
supplied  in  some  by  bristles.  The  blood  is  generally  red  and 


*  The  Trilobites,  which  figure  so  largely  in  Palaeozoic  Geology,  were  nearly 
related  to  the  Horse-shoe  Crab.    (Figs.  402,  403.) 


236 


SUBKINGDOM    ARTICULATA. 


respiration  is  effected  in  some  by  gills  and  in  others  by  the 
whole  surface  of  the  body.  Eyes  are  occasionally  found. 
Worms  exist  everywhere,  in  salt  and  fresh  water,  and  on  land, 
and  as  parasites  in  man  and  other  animals. 


Mostly  aquatic. 
Mostl     (ROUND. 


I 


j  WITHOUT  CILIATED  DISCS.  Annulata,  Nereis. 

I  WITH  CILIATED  DISCS.         Rotatoria,  Rotifer. 

(  WITH  SPINES.  Acanthocephalix,  Echinorhynchus. 

i  WITHOUT  SPINES.  Nematelminthes,  Trichina. 

Platyelminthes,  Tape-worm,  etc. 


ORDER     ANNULATA. 

General  Characteristics.  —  The  Annulata  have  red 
blood,  a  nervous  system  resembling  that  of  insects,  and  the 
alimentary  canal  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  body. 
The  body  is  elongated  and  the  segments  are  distinctly 
marked.  Some  are  furnished  with  bristles,  others  are  with- 
out ;  some  have  gills,  others  have  none. 

fig.  WU. 


Nereis  pelagica.    a,  Male ;  ft,  Female.    Natural  size. 

The  Nereidse  have  both  bristles  and  gills  arranged  on 
each  side  of  the  body,  and  the  mouth  is  armed  with 
powerful  jaws. 

The  Serpulidse  (see  Fig.  393)  are  marine,  with  gill-tufts 
around  the  head.  Some  live  in  calcareous  tubes  variously 
contorted,  adhering  by  the  closed  end  to  oyster-shells,  etc., 
but  protruding  from  the  open  end  brilliantly-colored,  fan-like 
appendages,  with  one  dilated  to  close  the  shell  when  the 


CLASS    VEKMES:     OKDEB    ANNTJLATA. 


237 


animal  is  withdrawn  into  the  tube.  Other  worms  nearly 
allied  to  Serpula  form  a  tube  by  cementing  together  grains 
of  sand  and  bits  of  broken  shells. 

The  Lumbricidse  (Common  Earth  or  Angle-worms)  are 
wanting  in  gills,  but  minute  apertures  on  the  sides  com- 
municate with  internal  respiratory  sacs,  on  the  walls  of 
which  the  blood  circulates  for  aeration.  Tiny  spines  directed 
backward  enable  the  worm  to  force  its  way  through  the 


Fig.  It06. 


.  Lumbrlcus  terrestrls,  Angle  or  Earth- 
worm.  h.  Anterior  segments  magni- 
fied, showing  bristles  directed  back- 
ward ;  c.  Egg^  enclosing  two  young  ; 
d.  Escape  of  young  from  egg. 


Hfr&do  medicindlis.  Leech,  Europe. 


earth.  Digesting  the  organic 
matter  in  the  dirt  it  eats,  the 
rejected  "worm-casts "are  of  service  in  the  garden,  and  often 
cover  barren  tracts  with  a  layer  of  productive  mould.  It  is 
oviparous — a  single  egg  frequently  containing  two  embryos. 


238 


SUEKINGDOM    ARTICULATA. 


Fig.  U07. 


The  Hinidinidae  (Leeches)  are  aquatic  without  bristles 
or  gills.  They  are  used  in  medicine  for  bleeding,  France 
alone  using  a  hundred  million  annually.  A  saw-like  move- 
ment of  their  tri-radiate  jaws  readily  cuts  the  skin,  and  with 
the  aid  of  the  vacuum  produced  by  the  sucker,  causes  a 
copious  flow  of  blood.  So  slow  is  its 
digestion  that  a  single  meal  will  answer 
for  a  year.  Over  thirty  species  are 
known  to  inhabit  the  fresh  waters  of 
North  America.  (Fig.  406.) 

-ORDER     ROTATORIA. 

.  The  Rotifers  (wheelbearers)  are 
aquatic  and  microscopic,  seldom  ex- 
ceeding one  thirty-sixth  of  an  inch  in 
length.  Anteriorly  they  have  one  or 
two  discs  surrounded  by  cilia,  whose 
rapid  motion  produces  the  optical  illu- 
sion of  revolving  wheels.  They  are  ovi- 
parous, and,  according  to  Ehrenberg, 
one  species  multiplied  in  twelve  days, 
Wheel  Aiimaicuie,  greatly  to  sixteen  millions,  as  "  determined 
by  actual  experiment,"  The  upper 
and  lower  segments  shut  together  like  a  telescope,  and  the 
animal  often  assumes  a  spherical  shape.  By  some  the  Eoti- 
fers  are  considered  Crustacea. 


Rotifer  vulgaris. 
Animalcule, 
magnified. 


Echinorhynchus  gigas,  Spine-headed  Worm. 
ORDER    ACANTHOCEPHALI. 

Acanthocephalidae. — The  Acanthocephali  (spine-head- 
ed) are  represented  by  Echinorfiynchus,  a  parasite  found  in 


CLASS    VEKMES:     OKDER    NEMATELMINTHES.  239 

the  alimentary  canal  of  the  hog.  Its  proboscis  is  retractile 
and  is  armed  with  four  circlets  of  sharp,  recurved  spines  sur- 
rounding a  simple  suctorial  mouth.  (Fig.  408.)  Koleops 
is  another  genus  found  in  the  eel. 

ORDER     NEMATELMINTHES. 

General  Characteristics.  —  The  Nematelminthes 
(thread-like  worms)  are  parasitic  during  a  portion  of  their 
lives  in  the  interior  of  various  animals.  The  head  is  without 
a  circle  of  hooks  and  the  sexes  are  separate. 

G-ordiidae. — The  Hair- 
snake  is  so  called  from  the  «r— ^  n 
erroneous  notion   that  it 
originates      from    horse- 
hairs   soaked    in    water. 

Probably,  by  the  eggs  Gor(fms  aq^^}  Hai^ke.  a.  Tail. 
being  eaten,  the  larvae 
obtain  access  to  the  bodies  of  grasshoppers,  etc.,  and,  coiling 
up  within  the  cavity,  reach  a  length  oftentimes  tenfold  that 
of  their  host.  At  maturity,  they  desert  the  insects  at  whose 
expense  they  have  been  nourished,  and  seek  the  water  to  lay 
their  eggs  and  die. 


Trichina  spiralis,  Muscle-worm. 
I.  Migrating  in  muscles;  2.  Encysted;  3.  Free  state. 

Trichinidse  (hair-worms). — The  Trichina  is  parasitic  in 


240  SUBKINGDOM    ARTICULATA. 

swine.  Leaving  the  intestines  by  boring  through  the  walls, 
it  lays  its  eggs  in  the  muscular  tissues.  Portions  of  this 
infected  meat  eaten  raw  in  Bologna  sausages  or  ham,  may 
transfer  the  eggs  to  be  hatched  in  the  intestines  of  man. 
There  they  multiply,  and  the  embryos,  penetrating  the  walls 
of  the  alimentary  canal,  work  their  way  through  the  mus- 
cles. The  victim  suffers  great  pain  and  shows  symptoms  like 
those  of  the  typhoid  fever.  If  he  can  endure  this  migration 
of  the  trichinae,  they  become  after  a  time  encysted,  and  he  is 
safe,  since  they  cannot  mature  until  transferred  to  some 
other  animal.  By  thoroughly  cooking  pork  the  trichina  is 
destroyed. 

ORDER     PLATYELMINTHES. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Platyelminthes  (flat- 
worms)  are  mostly  parasitic,  being  found  in  the  viscera  or 
muscles  of  various  animals.  They  are  without  bristles  and 
the  segments  of  the  body  are  indistinct. 

Fig.  un.  Distomidae  (double-mouthed). — The  Fluke 

has  one  or  two  suckers  by  which  it  adheres. 
The  alimentary  canal  divides  behind  the  mouth, 
and  terminates  in  blind  extremities.  This 
parasite  is  found  in  the  liver  of  sheep  and  deer, 
producing  the  disease  called  "  rot." 

Cestoididae  (ribbon-shaped). — The  Tape- 
worm of  the  human  system  is  sometimes  more 
than  twenty  feet  long,  The  anterior  extremity 
is  furnished  with  hooks  and  suckers  for  anchor- 
ing to  the  intestines  of  its  victim ;  but,  so  far  as 
Liver  Fluke.  appears,  there  is  no  mouth  or  digestive  organs, 
and  the  worm  seems  to  derive  its  nourishment  entirely  by 
absorption  through  the  skin.  It  grows  by  new  joints  formed 
next  to  the  head.  The  older  ones  ripen  and  fall  off.  Each 
of  these  can  move,  and  contains  a  multitude  of  eggs,  which, 
on  escaping  to  the  outer  world,  it  scatters  far  and  wide. 
The  eggs  are  oftenest  swallowed  by  the  hog,  that  omnivorous 
feeder.  In  its  stomach  they  hatch,  and  the  embryos,  boring 


CLASS    VERMES:     ORDER    PLATYELMINTHES.         240fl 
Mg.  U12. 


Tcenla  sofium,  Human  Tape-worm. 

their  way  into  the  blood  vessels,  are  swept  to 
all  parts  of  the  system.  Entering  the  organs, 
they  become  surrounded  by  a  cyst  or  crust. 
When  "  measly  pork,"  i.e.,  pork  thus  infested, 
is  eaten,  the  vesicle  bursts  and  the  worm  is 
rapidly  developed.* 

Planaridse  (flat-formed). —  The  Planaria 
is  of  gelatinous  consistency,  and  not  parasitic. 
Any  portion  amputated  is  reproduced  in  a 
brief  time. 


Fig.  1*13. 


Planoctra 

nebuldsa, 

Planarian  Worm, 

magnified  double. 


*  The  life-history  of  the  tape-worm  is  always  the  same.  Some  animal  eats  the 
eggs  and  develops  the  larvae  ;  another  eats  its  flesh  and  develops  the  mature 
worm.  The  other  common  tape-worm  of  man  is  derived  from  "  measly  "  beef.  The 
tape- worm  of  the  cat  comes  from  the  cystic  worm  of  the  mouse ;  that  of  the  fox  from 
the  cystic  worm  of  hares  and  rabbits ;  and  that  of  the  dog  from  the  cystic  worm 
which  causes  the  "  staggers  "  in  sheep. 


2405  SUBKIKGDOM    ARTICULATA. 

The  Articulata  are  divided  by  many  Naturalists  into  two 
groups,  the  Arthropoda  (including  the  Insecta  and  Crusta- 
cea) and  the  Vermes.  The  former  are  characterized  by  the 
presence  and  the  latter  by  the  absence  of  jointed  appen- 
dages. 

The  classification  of  the  Vermes  is  still  in  an  unsettled 
state,  very  little  being  known  concerning  the  lower  forms, 
and  almost  every  Naturalist  holding  views  of  his  own. 

HINTS  FOR  PRESERVING  INSECTS,  CRUSTACEA,  Etc. 

Prof.  Packard,  in  his  "  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects,"  recommends 
preparing  a  wide-mouth  collecting  bottle  by  putting  two  or  three 
small  pieces  of  cyanide  of  potassium  (pupils  should  remember  that 
this  is  very  poisonous)  in  the  bottom  and  covering  with  perforated  paper. 
Insects  of  every  kind  dropped  in,  die  instantly.  A  bottle  well-prepared 
will  last  for  months.  The  nests,  cocoons  and  chrysalids  of  insects  may 
be  preserved  from  injury  from  other  insects  by  being  soaked  in  arseni- 
ated  alcohol,  or  dipped  into  benzine,  or  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or 
creosote.  "  Setting-boards  "  for  spreading  the  wings  may  be  made  by 
sawing  in  a  thick  board  deep  grooves  of  varying  widths,  and  glueing 
at  the  bottom  of  each  a  strip  of  cork  or  pith.  The  body  of  the  insect 
having  been  placed  in  a  groove  and  the  wings  set  horizontally,  square 
pieces  of  glass  may  be  laid  upon  them  until  they  are  dry.  Bottles 
containing  sponges  saturated  with  benzine  should  be  kept  in  the  cases 
containing  the  specimens. 

All  Crustacea  may  be  preserved  by  drying,  after  eviscerating  the 
larger  specimens.  Caterpillars  may  be  preserved  with  the  colors 
unchanged,  according  to  Mr.  E.  Burgess,  by  immersing  them  in 
boiling  water  thirty  or  forty  seconds,  and  then  placing  them  in  equal 
parts  of  alcohol  and  water.  Worms  must  be  kept  in  spirit.  Star- 
fishes and  all  the  ecbinodenns  die  instantly  on  being  immersed  in 
fresh  water. 


III.    SUBKINGDOM   MOLLUSCA. 


Fig.  klk. 


General  Characteristics.  —  The  Molluscans  (soft- 
bodied)  have  yielding  tissues  of  great  contractile  power, 
inclosed  in  a  soft  flexible 
skin  called  the  mantle. 
The  nervous  ganglia  are 
placed  irregularly,  but  all 
communicate  with  a  larger 
mass  forming  around  the 
throat  a  ring,  which  may 
be  considered  the  brain. 
Except  in  one  class,  the 
muscles  are  attached  to  the 
skin,  which  is  usually  pro- 
tected by  a  shell  consisting  principally  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
which  in  turn  is  defended  by  an  epidermis  of  animal  matter, 
to  prevent  corrosion  by  the  water.  The  blood  is  white,  and 

Fig.  U15. 


Nervous  System  oj  a  Moilusk. 


A  MoUwk. 


the  circulation  effected  by  means  of  a  distinct  heart     Mol- 
lusks  are  mostly  oviparous. 


242 


8UBKIKGDOM     MOLLUSCA. 


Mollusca  vera 


HEAD  AND  FOOT  . 
PRESENT ; 


Bl- LATERALLY    SYMME- 
TRICAL ;   FEET  AROUND 
THE   HEAD. 

LATERALLY  UNSYMME- 
TRIOAL;  FOOT  BENEATH 

THE  BODY 


HEAD  ABSENT ;  FOOT  PRESENT ; 


Molluscoidea.    j 


SHELL,  DORSAL,  AND 
VENTRAL  VALVE. 

LEATHERY,  ELASTIC  COV- 
ERING ;  SIMPLE  OR 
COMPOUND. 

COMPOUND  ;  MOSS-LIKE.       Polyzoa. 


CLASSKS. 
Cephalopoda. 

Gasteropoda, 

Lamellibranchiat 
Brachiopoda. 

Tunicata. 


CLASS    I.     CEPHALOPODA. 

General  Characteristics.  —  The  Cephalopoda  (head- 
footed)  have  muscular  tentacles  or  arms  around  the  mouth  ; 
beaked,  horny  jaws;  two  large  eyes:  arms  covered  with 
sucking  discs ;  and  a  bag  of  ink,  with  which  most  species 
blacken  the  water  to  hide  from  pursuit. 


CEPHALOPODA. 


ORDERS. 

TWO-GILLED.  Dibranchiata,  Argonaut,  etc. 

FOUR-GILLED.  Tetrabrancbiata,          Nautilus,  etc. 


ORDER     DIBRANCHIATA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Dibranchiates  (two- 
gilled),  have  an  ink-gland  and  the  power  of  changing  color 
like  a  chameleon. 

Fig.  U16. 


Argonauta  argo,  Paper  Sailor.    \. 

The  Argonautidae  (sailors)  are  named  from  the  fabulous 


CLASS  CEPHALOPODA:    ORDER  DIBRAKCHIATA.     243 

account  of  their  using  their  delicate  shell  as  a  boat,  their  ten- 
tacles as  oars,  and  their  expanded  mantle  as  a  sail.  The 
female  secretes  an  unchambered  shell  for  transporting  her 
eggs,  but  is  not  united  to  it,  though  she  swims  backward  with 
it  by  enveloping  it  in  her  two  broad  disks  and  forcing  water  for- 
ward through  her  breathing  funnel.  The  male  has  no  shell. 

The  Loliginidae  are  the  Flg  hll 

"cuttle-fish"  of  the  Atlantic 
coast.  There  are  many  spe- 
cies, some  'furnishing  the 
thin  "pen"  and  others  the 

thick  "  Cuttle-bone  "  used  for       Lol^f°  *><*rtramU,  Squid,  Atlantic.    £. 

canaries.  Some  varieties  are  the  "squid"  which  form  the 
food  of  the  sperm  whale. 

The  eight-armed  cuttle-fish  (Sepia  octopus)  often  grows  to 
a  length  of  eight  feet,  with  arms  reaching  twice  that  dis- 
tance. The  ten-armed  (8.  officindlis)  is  common  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  Its  ink  is  a  favorite  pigment  used  in 
water-color  painting,  under  the  name  of  sepia.  Its  cuttle- 
bone  is  a  calcareous  internal  shell  occupying  a  hollow  in  the 
back.  The  Sepiae  are  flesh-eaters,  devouring  fishes,  crusta- 
ceans, and  mollusks.  In  turn  they  are  the  prey  of  the 
porpoise  and  dolphin,  who  eat  only  the  tender  head  and 
arms,  and  reject  the  rest  of  the  body.  The  shore  of  the  sea 
at  certain  places  is  covered  with  these  mutilated  remains.* 

ORDER    TETRABRANCHIATA. 

General  Characteristics.— The  Tetrabranchiates  (four- 
gilled)  have  an  external  chambered  shell,  the  partitions  of 
which  are  united  by  a  tube  called  the  "  siphuncle."  As  the 

*  These  monsters  of  the  deep  have  famished  material  for  the  novelist  and  the 
painter.  See  Victor  Hugo's  "  Toilers  of  the  Sea,"  and  Harper's  Magazine,  vol.  xxi, 
page  185.  Their  accounts  are  greatly  exaggerated.— Mr.  Beale  in  his  Natural 
History  of  the  sperm-whale  describes  a  specimen  of  the  so-called  "  Rock- 
squid,"  not  larger  than  his  fist,  but  with  arms  expanding  four  feet.  He  grasped  one 
of  its  tentacles,  but  the  cuttle-fish  held  to  the  rock  with  its  suckers  so  strongly  as  to 
resist  all  his  strength.  A  sudden  jerk  exasperated  the  animal,  which  fixed  its  glaring 
eyes  upon  its  tormentor  and,  suddenly  releasing  its  hold,  sprang  upon  his  naked 


244  SUBKINGDOM    MOLLUSCA. 

animal  increases  in  size,  it  partitions  off  the  part  previously 
occupied  and  moves  forward.  There  are  over  two  thousand 
fossil  species,  but  only  few  living. 

Fig.  MB. 


Nautilus  pompitius,  Pearly  Nautilus.    |. 
Section  showing  Chambers  and  Siphuncle. 

The  Nautilidae  (sailors)  have  about  a  hundred  short 
tapering  tentacles,  which  are  quickly  withdrawn  into  the 
first  chamber  on  an  alarm,  so  that  their  habits  are  little 
known. 

CLASS    II.     GASTEROPODA. 

General  Characteristics.— The  Gasteropods  (belly- 
footed)  move  from  place  to  place  by  a  single  fleshy  disc  of 
foot  placed  under  the  abdomen.  Most  inhabit  univalve 
shells,  though  some  species  are  naked.  The  viscera  occupy 
the  upper  part  of  the  shell,  which  is  secreted  by  the  mantle 
in  various  ways,  according  to  the"  habits  of  the  different 
forms. 

arm  and  endeavored  to  reach  him  with  its  beak.  Its  slimy  grasp  sickened,  while  its 
threatening  look  so  alarmed  him  that  he  loudly  called  for  assistance.  His  release 
was  at  last  effected  only  by  killing  the  cuttle-fish  with  the  boat-hook,  and  cutting  off 
its  arms  bit  by  bit. 


CLASS  GASTEROPODA:  ORDER  PROSOBRANCHIATA.    245 


GASTEROPODA. 


GILLS  IN  FRONT. 
LUNG-BEARERS. 
GILLS  BEHIND. 
GILLS  CLUSTERED. 
WING-FOOTED. 

Prosobranchiata, 
Pulmonifera, 
Opisthobranchiata, 
Nucleobranchiata, 
Pteropoda, 

Murex,  etc. 
Snail,  etc. 
JSolifi,  etc. 
Carinaria,  etc. 
Clio,  etc. 

Mg.  UW. 


SHELLS  OP  GASTEROPODS  USED  TOR  ORNAMENTS.—!.  Cyndftum  broderijnl;  2.  Ce 
rithlum;  3.  Valuta  imperialis ;  4.  Cardium  datum;  5.  Phorus  agglufmans; 
6.  Murex  tenuispinus  ,•  7.  VermUus  eburntus  ;  8.  Trochus  niloficus  ;  9.  Lithodfanut 
lithopkdgus;  10.  Turritella. 


ORDER     PROSOBRANCHIATA. 

General  Characteristics.  —  The  Prosobranchs  (gills 
forward)  have  the  gills  placed  in  front  of  the  heart. 

Muricidss  (rock-shells). — The  Murex  has  the  aperture  of 
its  shell  prolonged  into  a  canal.  *  It  is  carnivorous,  destroy- 


*  The  Shetlanders  use  this  shell  for  a  lamp,  inserting  the  wick  in  the  canal  and 
filling  the  hody  of  the  shell  with  oil.-From  these  Mollusks  the  ancients  obtained  the 
costly  Syrian  dye,  the  "  purple  "  of  Scripture. 


STJBKINGDOM    MOLLUSCA. 


ing  its  prey  with  its  terrible  armature  (odontophora)  or  tooth- 
ribbon,  analogous  to  the  band  of  a  chain  saw,  and  set  with 
adamantine  teeth,  sharp-edged,  and  pointed  as  those  of  a  shark 


mg. 


Fig. 


Teeth  of  Murex. 


Cyprcea  tigris. 


The  Cyprseidae  (Cowries)  have  the  mantle,  in  many  spe- 
cies, covered  with  filaments  and  the  foot  enormously  devel- 
oped. The  eyes  are  near  the  base  of  the  tentacles,  and  the 
tooth-ribbon  is  armed  with  a  series  of  powerful  teeth. 

The  Harpidae  (harp-shells)  are  found  on  the  shores  of 
the  Mauritius,  and  are  remarkable  for  having  too  large  a 
foot  wholly  to  conceal  within  the  shell. 
The  Haliotidse  (sea-ears)  have  shells  of  a  pearly  lustre, 
with  resplendent  metallic  hues,  useful  for 
inlaying  the  darker  woods  and  for  sleeve- 
links. 

The  Fissurelidae  (fissured)  have  an 
aperture  in  the  top,  and,  adhering  to  the 
rocks,  seem  adapted  Fig  ^3 

to  a  sedentary  life. 
The  Dentalidse  (toothed)  have  a 
shell  shaped  like  a  miniature  elephant's 
tusk.    At  the  base  of  the  conical  foot  is  situated  the  head 


Fig. 


Fissurella  listiri. 


Dentatium  (jentalis. 


ORDER     PULMONIFERA. 

General  Characteristics.  —  The  Pulmonifers  (lung- 
bearers)  are  air-breathing,  even  those  inhabiting  the  water 
being  obliged  to  come  frequently  to  the  surface.  They  have 


CLASS  GASTEROPODA:    ORDER  PULMONIFERA.      24? 

Fig.  It2k. 


Heliclace,  Land  Snails. 


the  simplest  form  of  lung — a  mere  cavity,  with  an  orifice  at 
the  right  side  of  the  neck  which  the  animal  can  open  or 
close  at  will.  They  are  herbivorous,  and  often  very  destruc- 
tive to  grain  fields  and  fruit  trees. 


Limax  antiguorum,  Great  Gray  Slug,  Europe. 


248  SUBKINGDOM    MOLLUSCA. 

Helicidae  (spiral-form). — The  Land-snail  has  four  tenta- 
cles, the  longer  pair  with  eyes  at  the  extremity.  It  lays  its 
eggs  singly,  while  the  other  Orders  lay  theirs  in  chains.* 

Limacidae. — The  Slugs  are  snails  without  the  shell,  or 
with  only  a  rudimentary  one  concealed  in  the  mantle. 

ORDER     OPISTHOBRANCHIATA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Opisthobranchs  (gills 
behind)  are  generally  naked,  with  feathery  gills  behind  the 
heart. 


Jffife,  Britain. 


The  Soli's  is  typical  of  the  order,  having  its  gills  arranged 
in  tufts  along  the  back,  and  the  tentacles  non-retractile. 

ORDER    NUCLEOBRANCHIATA. 
General    Characteristics. — The  Nucleobranchs  (clus- 

Mg.  W7. 


Carinatia  mediterranZa. 


*  If  placed  upon  a  pane  of  ejlass,  by  looking  underneath,  one  can  easily  observe 
Its  curious  progression  by  means  of  a  single  foot. 


CLASS  GASTEROPODA:    ORDER  PTEROPODA.         349 

ter-gilled)  have  their  respiratory  organs  in  a  nucleus,  and 
their  foot  modified  into  a  sort  of  fin  for  swimming. 

The  Carinaridae  (keeled)  have  the  more  delicate  organs 
protected  by  a  small  shell  fringed  around  the  mouth  with 
gills,  while  the  larger  part  of  the  animal  is  exposed.  The 
fin-like  foot  has  a  small  sucker  for  attaching  to  sea-weed 
compelling  them  to  swim  with  the  back  downward. 

ORDER     PTEROPODA.' 

General  Characteristics. — The  Pteropods  (wing-footed) 
move  by  means  of  two  wing-like  fins.  The  animals  are 
small,  yet  occur  in  such  numbers  as  often  to  color  the  ocean 
for  miles.  They  are  probably  carnivorous,  and,  in  turn,  are 
food  for  the  whale. 

Fig.  1,28. 


ClioboreaHs. 

Cliidae. — The  Clio  is  only  an  inch  long,  but  its  prehensive 
apparatus  is  elaborate.  Six  labial  tentacles  bear  about  three 
hundred  and  sixty  thousand  suckers  for  seizing  and  holding 
its  minute  prey,  which  is  speedily  reduced  by  the  laterally- 
working  jaws  full  of  long,  comb-like  teeth,  and  by  the  tongue 
rough  with  sharp,  spiny,  recurved  booklets. 


250 


SUBKLtfGDOM    MOLLUSCA. 


CLASS   III.     LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 


Fig. 


Atya  arenaria,  Clam.t 


General  Characteristics.— 
The  Lamellibranchs*  (lamellated 
gills)  are  all  bivalves.  The 
two  parts  of  the  shell  are  con- 
nected by  a  hinge,  usually  with 
interlocking  teeth.  To  hold 
them  open — that  being  always 
the  unconstrained  position — an 
elastic  ligament  is  fixed  to  the 
hinge,  if  inside,  acting  by  expan- 
sion, if  outside,  by  contraction. 
The  valves  are  closed  by  muscles, 
ordinarily  two,  but  sometimes 
only  one.  The  respiratory  organs 
are  leaf-like  gills,  to  which  in  the 
lower  forms  the  water  is  brought 
by  a  double  tube,  one  orifice  for 
ingress,  and  the  other  for  egress, 
after  it  has  laved  the  gills  and 
circulated  around  the  mouth 
which  filters  out  the  food.  Most 
move  by  means  of  a  foot,  which 
is  often  very  powerful,  and,  in  the 
boring  species,  is  covered  with 
flinty  particles. 

f  SIPHONS  )  „,.  (  Clam, 

PRESENT.  }S'Ph0nata-     1       etc. 


*  All  this  class  are  headless,  and  hence  they  are  sometimes  termed  "  Acephala." 
They  are  also  called  Conchifers  (shell-bearers). 

t  All  the  viscera,  right  valve  and  half  the  siphon  retained,  g.  Gills  ;  s.  Siphon 
introducing  water  to  the  gills  and  mouth  ;  s'.  Siphon  carrying  out  the  water  after  it  has 
bathed  the  gills  and  surrendered  the  food  which  it  contained  to  the  mouth,  o ;  t.  Four  lip 
tentacles  ;  h.  Heart,  the  intestine  \  passing  through  it ;  m.  Mantle  ligament  uniting  the 
valves  around  their  edges  ;  p.  Orifice  in  the  mantle  through  which  the  foot  f  protrudes  ; 
p.  Cloaca.;  a,  a'.  Muscles  closing  the  valves  by  their  contraction. 


CLASS  LAMELLIBRAKCHIATA :    ORDEE   SIPHOKATA. 


ORDER     SIPHONATA. 

General  Characteristics.— The  Siphonata  (siphoned) 
include  those  lamellibranchiates  which  have  respiratory  tubes 
distinctly  separated  from  each  other,  and  the  lobes  of  the 
mantle  more  or  less  united. 

Fig.  ItSl. 


Fig.  kSO. 


Solen  ensis,  Razor  Shjil 


Terldo  navalis,  Ship-worm. 


Solenidae  (channeled)  have  a  shell  shaped  like  a  razor- 
handle,  with  a  large  foot,  that  can  be  turned  into  an  awl  for 
boring  into  the  mud,  and  then  into  a  ball  for  pushing  them- 
selves to  the  surface. 

The  Cardiidae  (heart-shaped)  put  forth  a  foot  capable 
of  distention  with  water  introduced  through  an  orifice  near 
the  mouth.  By  a  rotary  movement  of  the  foot  thus  thick- 


252 


STJBKLNGDOM    MOLLUSCA. 


ened,  they  excavate  a  burrow  sufficiently  large  to  receive  the 
Fig.  m.  entire  shell. 

The  Teredinidae  (borers)  have  on 
their  anterior  part  a  pair  of  valves 
which  they  use  to  bore  into  wood. 
They  line  the  cavity,  as  they  proceed, 
with  shelly  matter,  often  making  a 
tube  two  feet  in  length.  They  work 
in  various  directions,  but  never  en- 
croach upon  one  another,  though  it  is 
difficult  to  comprehend  how  they  be- 
come aware  of  the  proximity  of  their  neighbors. 


One-half  of  a  Cockle  SMI, 
showing  lines  of  growth. 


Fig.  hSS. 


ORDER    ASIPHONATA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Asiphonata  (siphonless) 
include  all  bivalves  with  open  mantle  and  without  a  siphon. 

The  Mytilidae  (mussel-fish)  anchor  their  shells  to  rocks 
by  means  of  gluey  threads,  that 
seem  either  to  grow  or  be  spun 
from  the  foot.  This  "byssus" 
is  in  some  species  so  long  and 
silken,  as,  for  a  curiosity,  to  be 
woven  into  cloth. 

Ostrseidae.  —  The  Common 
Oyster,  found  along  the 
Atlantic  coast,  when  young,  is 
free,  but  soon  attaches  itself  to 
rocks  by  the  left  or  rounded 
valve.  It  thus  generally  lies  on  its  left  side.  By  ciliary 
movements,  it  produces  currents  which  convey  the  water 
through  the  open  mantle  to  the  gills  for  respiration,  and  then 
hurry  it  on  to  the  mouth,  which  lies  back,  near  the  hinge, 
where  the  labial  fingers  extract  the  food  it  may  contain.* 

*  The  hard  part  always  cut  in  opening  the  shell  is  the  adductor  muscle  whose 
business  is  to  shut  the  valves.  These  open  naturally  ahout  one-half  of  an  inch.  The 
mantles  on  the  two  sides  of  the  shell  meet  at  the  aperture.  Their  edges  are  fringed 
with  cilia— the  English  call  them  the  oyster's  beard— which  can  be  pro  traded  from 


Myfilus  edulis,  with  byssus. 


CLASS   LAMELLIBRANCHIATA  :    ORDER   ASIPHCWATA.      253 

Fig.  U2U. 


Meleagnna  margaritiftra,  with  lead  images  covered  with  pearl  nacre. 

The  Aviculidse    (little-bird)  include  the   pearl-makers. 
These    gems    are    caused    by    the    effort    of     the    animaJ 


Fiq. 


the  shell  and*  used  in  bringing  inside  animalcules  and  the  spores  of  algae  for  food.    The 

lime  for  building  the  shell  is  secreted  by  the 

mantle.    The  plaited   frills  on  the  mantle 

are  the  gills.    The  heart,  shaped  like  an 

old-fashioned   purse,   has    an  auricle  and 

ventricle,  and  circulates  a  limpid  colorless 

blood.    If  the  shell  be  opened  with  care,  the 

beating  of  this  organ  may  be  distinctly  seen. 

The  black  liver  is  large  and  secretes  a  deep 

yellow  bile  in  large  quantity.    The  mouth  is 

provided  with  tentacles  by  which  food  is 

selected   and   carried   inside.     The   oyster 

wants  brains  and  eyes,  and  has  no  sense 

except    that  of  touch,  which  is  located  in 

the  tentacles.    The  eggs  are  yellowish,  and 

a  single  oyster  may  contain  two  millions, 

lying  in  the  folds  of  the  mantle  and  looking 

like  thick  cream.    When  the  proper  time 

arrives  they  are  ejected  into  the  water  in  a 

milky  cloud.    Each  little  oyster,  though  not 

larger  than  the  point  of  a  pin— a  whole  troop 

being  able  to  swim  freely  about  in  a  drop  of 

water— has  a  perfect  shell,  and  is  provided 

with  a  fleshy  pad  for  attaching  itself  to  any  Ostrea  edulis,  Common  Oyster,  in  shell, 

object  at  hand.    Crustaceans,  worms  and     upper  valve  removed,  a.  Upper  portion 

enemies  of  all  kinds,  with  a  natural  liking 

for  raw  oysters,  flock  in  to  the  feast,  and  a 

few  score  only  of  the  millions  escape.    The 

survivors  anchor  themselves  to  some  rough 

surface  and  grow  rapidly.    In  a  month  they 

will  be  as  large  as  a  pea.    If  we  examine  a 

shell  we  can  see  the  layers  overlapping  each 


of  mantle  covering  the  month  with  its 
four  lips;  b,  c.  The  mantle;  d.  The 
breathing  organs ;  e.  Portion  of  th6 
lobes  of  the  mantle,  between  which  is 
the  extremity  of  the  intestinal  canal; 
f.  Part  of  the  heart;  g.  Adductor 


254 


SUBKINGDOM     MOLLUSCA. 


to  cover  up  with  nacre  any  irritating  substance,  as  a  grain  of 
sand,  that  may  have  gotten  beneath  the  mantle.* 

The  Hammer  Oyster  of  the  Indian  Ocean  presents  one  of 
those  singular  forms  seemingly  designed  to  puzzle  natural- 


Fig.  !<36. 


Malleus  viilgftris,  Hammer-oyster. 

ists  in  endeavoring  to  account  for  the  utility  of  the  anomalous 
appendages. 


other  like  shingles,  each  one  indicating  a  season's  growth  and  the  series  showing 
the  oyster's  age.  In  three  or  four  years  a  marketable  size  will  be  reached.  The 
little  red  crab  often  found  sharing  the  oyster's  home  is  the  Pinnotheres  ontrSum. 
The  female  is  generally  seen,  as  the  male  is  scarce.  The  latter  has  its  back 
ornamented  with  a  white  figure  very  like  an  anchor. — At  the  discovery  of  America 
the  oyster  was  abundant  upon  the  Atlantic  coast.  Immense  mounds  of  shells  lie 
along  the  shore,  from  Maine  to  Florida.  They  antedate  the  time  of  the  Indian, 
and  are  so  large  that  in  Florida,  during  the  late  war,  some  were  used  as  forts. 
See  Lockwood's"  Natural  History  of  an  Oyster,"  in  Popular  Science  Monthly,  Novem- 
ber, 1875. 

*  Taking  advantage  of  this,  the  Chinese  have  long  been  in  the  habit  of  producing 
pearls  artificially  by  slipping  metal  images  under  the  mantle  and  then  releasing  the 
animals.  In  six  months  the  figures  are  found  overlaid  with  a  pearly  secretion. 
Sometimes,  however,  the  crafty  Celestials  paste  these  images  upon  the  interior  of  a 
dead  shell  and  then  paint  it,  over  with  a  mixture  of  powdered  a  mother  of  pearl,"  in 
exact  imitation  of  the  genuine. 


CLASS    TUNICATA. 


255 


CLASS    IV.     BRACHIOPODA.* 


Fig.  1*37. 


General  Characteristics.  —  The  Brachiopods  (arm- 
footed)  have  the  valves  on  the  upper  and  the 
under  side  of  the  body,  instead  of  the  later- 
al ;  are  without  a  hinge  ligament,  the  valves 
opening  and  shutting  by  a  complicated  ar- 
rangement of  muscles ;  respire  by  blood- 
vessels ramifying  minutely  over  the  surface 
of  the  mantle ;  and  obtain  their  food,  in 
most  species,  by  two  long  spiral  arms,  capable 
Fig  ASS  °^  being  unrolled  and  extended 
to  a  great  distance. 

The  Terebratulidae  (boring 
family)  have  the  back  of  the  ven- 
tral valve  pierced  with  a  hole  for  the  passage  of 
the  pedicle,  by  which  the  animal  is  permanently 
attached  to  solid  substances. 

The  Lingulidae  (tongue-shape)  have  a  long 
pedicle  issuing  from  the  interior  of  the  shell 
through  the  hinge. 

Fig. 


Dorsal  valve  of  a 

Brachiopod,  with 

one  spiral  arm 

partly  uncoiled. 


Terebratulina 

feptentiiondlis, 

Lamp-shell. 


Lingula  anafina. 


CLASS   V.     TUNICATA. 

General  Characteristics.  —  The  Tunicata  (cloaked) 
have  no  shell,  head,  feet,  or  arms,  and  usually  look  like 
shapeless  gelatinous  masses,  composed  of  two  tunics  or  coat- 
ings, forming  a  tube,  with  one  orifice  for  the  inlet  and 


*  Prof.  E.  S.  Morse,  endorsed  by  some  other  Naturalists,  classes  the  Brachiopode 
with  the  Annelids. 


256 


SUBKIKGDOM    MOLLUSCA. 


another  for  the  exit  of  water.     They  have  a  stomach,  pulsating 
heart,  branchial  appendages,  and  highly  developed  secretory 

organs.  Some  are  simple, 
others  attached  to  a  common 
mantle,  but  each  individual 
a  maintains  a  separate  exist- 
ence. 

Clavellinidse  (little 
knobs). — These  Ascidians  are 
united  by  a  common  stem.* 
The  elongated  heart  con- 
tracts from  behind  forward, 

SO  as  to   propel  the   blood  in 

one  direction,  and  after  a 
few  moments,  the  pulsations 
becoming  fainter  and  fainter, 
the  heart  gives  the  opposite  impulse, 
and  the  blood  travels  the  other  way, 
through  the  same  vessels. 

The  Salpidae  (stocked)  are  so 
transparent  that  the  structure  of 
their  internal  organs  may  be  exam- 
ined through  their  coatings.  They 
present  an  example  of  alternate 
generation.  An  individual  Salp  re- 
sembles "  its  grandparent,  its  grand- 
children, and  its  own  brethren,"  but 
differs  equally  from  its  parent  and 
its  own  children.  A  single 


Clavettlna  lepidiformis,  Social  Tunicates 
or  Ascidians.  a.  Incurrent  orifice ; 
b.  Excurrent  do. ;  c.  Stomach ;  d.  Intes- 
tinal canal ;  e.  Common  stem. 


*  The  history  of  a  cluster  is  as  follows  i  A  sin- 
gle individual  just  from  the  egg  possesses  active 
powers  of  locomotion.  After  wandering  a  time 
it  attaches  itself,  and  sends  forth  creeping  stems, 
from  which,  at  brief  intervals,  there  bud  and  grow 
to  maturity  other  individuals.  From  each  of  these  Salpa  cabotti.  a.  Posterior  orifice  ; 
proceed  young,  to  become  in  like  manner  the  b.  Anterior  do. ;  c.  Processes  by 
parents  of  other  colonies.  This  free  motion  of  which  the  individuals  of  the 
the  immature  Ascidians  provides  for  the  general  chain  were  united ;  h.  Heart, -a. 
diffusion  of  these  animals,  and  prevents  their  Nervous  ganglion ;  o.  Nucleus ; 
being  crowded  in  particular  spots.  r.  Oitt. 


CLASS    POLYZOA. 


257 


gives  birth  to  an  individual  which,  by  budding,  produces 
long  chains  of  aggregated  individuals*  greatly  different 
from  the  parent.  Each  of  these  produces  an  egg,  which 
hatches  an  individual  like  the  grandparent.  Thus  the 
series  is  repeated  endlessly. 


CLASS    VI.      POLYZOA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Polyzoans  **ff-  us- 
(many-animals),  or  Bryozoans  (moss-animals), 
are  compound ;  each  individual,  however,  in- 
habiting a  separate  cell  or  tube.  The  mouth  is 
surrounded  with  ciliated  tentacles,  and  the 
whole  animal  can  usually  be  entirely  withdrawn 
into  the  cell,  which  is  in  some  species  soft  and 
flexible,  in  others  horny,  and  in  others  calca- 
reous. In  the  genus  BowerbanJcia,  the  struc- 
ture is  so  delicate  and  transparent  that  the 
interior  may  be  clearly  seen.  The  Bryozoan  is 
thus  perceived  to  have  a  complex  digestive  ap- 
paratus floating  freely  in  the  general  cavity — a 
gizzard  for  triturating  the  food,  a  liver  for 
secreting  bile,  an  intestinal  tube,  and  a  distinct 
excretory  orifice  outside  the  circle  of  tentacles. 

The  Flustrae,  or  "  Sea-mats,"  are  Bryozoan 
communities,  consisting    of   a  multitude    of 
horny,  calcareous  cells,  some  species  incrusting 
stones,  others  'spread  out  like  a  thin  net-work 
of  gauze,  each  cell  containing  an  individual  polyzoan.     The 
whole  progeny  of  a  single  isolated  specimen  of  sea-mat  spring, 
by  budding,  from  an  embryo  produced  in  each  egg,  within 
which   two  little   Bryozoa  are  found.      These  make  their 


Bowerbankia. 
a.  (Esophagus; 

b.  Gizzard; 

c.  Stomach ; 


*  The  progeny  of  a  single  egg  unite  by  the  adhesion  of  their  surfaces,  or  of  little 
suckers,  so  as  to  string  out  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach.  Being  phosphorescent  in  the 
night,  these  long-drawn  bands  give  the  effect  of  ribbons  of  fire,  twisting  and  doubling! 
as  they  rise  and  fall  with  the  waves. 


258 


STJBKIKGDOM    MOLLUSCA. 


escape,  and,  after  swimming  about  for  a  time,  attach  them- 
selves, and  the  pairs  lay  the  foundation  of  a  new  colony. 


Fig.  MS. 


IVustrafoliacea,  Sea  Mat. 

Some  genera  of  Polyzoans  possess  singular  processes 
resembling  a  bird's  beak,  each  cell  having  one  and  sometimes 
two.  These  open  and  shut  constantly,  and  if  they  are 
touched  with  a  needle,  the  mandibles  will  snap  together  upon 
it  so  forcibly  that  the  whole  branch  may  be  shaken  by  it. 


IV.     SUBKINGDOM     ECHINODER- 
MATA. 

G-eneral  Characteristics. — The  Eehinoderrns  (spiny- 
skinned)  have  all  the  parts  symmetrically  arranged  around 
a  central  axis,  thus  necessitating  a  peculiar  system  of 
radiating  canals  and  nervous  ganglia.  They  are  all  ovipa- 
rous. They  respire  by  a  water- vasculary  system  permeating 
the  entire  body.  There  is  also  a  blood  vascular  system,  with 
a  central  contractile  heart. 

(BODY  CYLINDRICAL  ;  FREE  ;  MOUTH  FORWARD.  Holothuroide*. 

BODY  SPHERICAL  OR  FLAT;  FREE;  MOUTH  UNDERNEATH.  Echinoidea. 
BODY  STAR-SHAPED  ;  FREE  }  MOUTH  UNDERNEATH.  Asteroidea. 

BODY  CUP-SHAPED  ;  FIXED  ;  MOUTH  UPPERMOST.  Criiioidea. 

CLASS    I.      HOLOTHUROIDEA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Holothuroids  (whole- 
mouthed)  have  a  tough  skin,  sprinkled  with  calcareous 
granules.  The  mouth  is  surrounded  with  feathery  tentacles, 

Fig.  lAh. 


Pentaetafronddsa,  Holothuroid  or  Sea-cucumber. 

and  the  body  is  worm-shaped,  though  constructed  upon  the 
radiate  plan.  By  means  of  their  powerful  longitudinal  and 
transverse  muscles,  they  can  disgorge  their  own  stomachs, 
and  even  throw  off  their  tentacles,  and,  after  remaining  inert 
for  a  season,  take  on  a  new  set  of  the  rejected  organs. 


260 


SUBKIKGDOM    ECHIHODEBMATA. 


.  IAS. 


CLASS    II.      ECHINOIDEA. 

General  Characteristics.— The  Echinoids  (hedgehog- 
like)  are  covered  with  spines,  moved  by  the  general  envelop- 
ing membrane. 
Their  shell  is 
composed  of  reg- 
ularly-shaped 
plates,  arranged 
in  radiating 
zones,  every  al- 
ternate plate  per- 
forated for  the 
passage  of  suck- 
ers (ambulacra), 
which  can  be  ex- 
tended beyond 
the  spines,*  and 

Echinus  spfmra,  Sea  Urchin.    Spines  removed  from  left  half.  "J  Adhesion   en- 
able the  animal 
Mingled  with  the  spines  are  stems 


to  move  over  the  rocks. 
(pedicillarice),  each 
ending  in  forceps, 
apparently  for  pre- 
hension and  for  rid- 
ding the  animal  of 
parasites.  The 
mouth  is  armed 
with  five  sharp 
teeth,  which  con- 
tinually wear  upon 
one  another,  but, 


*  A  full-grown  Urchin 
may  have  five  hundred 
plates,  four  thousand 
spines,  and  perhaps  two 
thousand  suckers. 


Fig.  UUQ. 


Meltita  qmnqueftira,  K^y-hole  Urchin. 


CLASS    ASTEEOIDEA. 


261 


like  the  incisors  of  a  rodent,  are  constantly  renewed.    These 
are    worked    by    thirty-five  powerful  muscles— the  wbol 
apparatus  being  known  as  "Aristotle's  lantern."' 

CLASS    III.      ASTEROIDEA. 

General    Characteristics.— The  Asteroids   (star-like) 
have  five  or  more  radiating  arms,  which  contain  portion* 

Fig.  UU1. 


Astenas,  Star-fish. 


of  the  viscera.  Their  mouth  and  locomotive  suckers  are  on 
the  lower  side — the  former  without  teeth,  digestion  being 
performed  by  the  animal's  -turning  its  stomach  out  of  its 

*  Some  species,  like  the  Key-hole  Urchin,  are  singularly  modified  from  the  typical 
forms,  and  are  hence  called  Irregular  Echinoids. 


26%          SUBKIKGDOM  ECHINODEBMATA. 

mouth  and  wrapping  it  over  the  shell-fish,  etc.,  upon  which 
it  feeds.  On  the  end  of  each  ray  is  a  red  eye,  over  which  a 
circle  of  spines  may  be  thrown  for  its  protection. 

The  Star-fish  can  adapt  itself  to  the  inequalities  of  the 
surface  over  which  it  moves,  and  even  enter  narrow  fissures. 

Fig.  U8. 


Astroph&ton  agassizii,  Basket-fish. 

On  the  "back  is  a  kind  of  sieve  (madreporic  body),  through 
which  water  filtered  of  sand  passes  to  the  locomotive  suckers. 
In  some  species,  the  five  arms  are  subdivided  till  the  number 
of  branches  is  nearly  five  thousand.* 


*  All  the  Star-fishes,  of  which  there  are  at  least  one  hundred  and  fifty  species, 
have  the  power  of  disintegrating  themselves,  especially  the  many-branched  varieties, 
and  of  restoring  in  a  brief  time  the  portions  broken  off.  Hence  when  fishermen  vent 
their  spite  upon  them  for  stealing  their  bait,  by  tearing  them  in  pieces  and  throwing 
them  overboard,  they  simply  multiply  the  evil.  Immersed  in  fresh  cold  water  they 
die  instantly. 


CLASS    CEIAOIDEA.  263 


CLASS    IV.     CRINOIDEA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Oinoids  (lily-form)  are 
Echinoderms  that  during  a  portion  or  the  whole  of  their 
lives  are  fixed  to  some  solid  body  by  a  foot-stalk  (peduncle). 
They  strikingly  resemble  a  flower.  The  mouth  is  in  the 

Fig.  Uh9. 


Comatula  rosac$a,  Rosy  Feather-star.    Adult  free  Crinoid. 

centre,  with  arms  springing  from  the  disk  or  calyx,  but 
speedily  ramifying  until  the  complete  internal  skeleton, 
exclusive  of  the  stem,  consists  of  many  thousand  joints.  All 
parts  are  covered  with  a  fleshy  integument,  dipping  down 
between  each  joint.  Some  of  the  species  remain  fixed  for 
life,  while  one  at  least  (Comatula)  is  known  at  maturity  to 
drop  from  the  stem  and  ever  after  to  wander  free.  (See 
"Geology,"  pp.  129, 153,  171.) 


364 


ECHINODERMATA. 


V. 

SUBKINGDOM    CCELENTERATA. 

General  Characteristics.— The  Ccelenterates  (hollow 
3D  trailed)  are  radiates  having  a  distinct  body-cavity,  whose 
walls  consist  of  an  outer  layer  (ectoderm)  and  an  inner  layer 
(endoderm).  They  are  all  aquatic,  and  multiply  alike  by 
budding,  by  eggs  and  by  fission.  They  are  usually  armed 
with  peculiar  stinging  filaments. 

/   DIGESTIVE  CAVITY,  WITH  TWO  OPENINGS.  Ctenophora. 

CCELENTERATA,   -]    DIGESTIVE  CAVITY,  DOUBLE,  WITH  RADIATING  SPACES.         Anthozoa. 
i    DIGESTIVE  CAVITY,  SINGLE.  Hydrozoa. 

CLASS    I.     CTENOPHORA. 

General  Characteristics.— The  Cteno-  ^  *V- *«• 
phora  (comb-bearers)  are  transparent,  ge- 
latinous bodies,  with  eight  rows  of  comb- 
like  fringes  and  two  long  tentacles  provided 
with  lateral  filaments  spirally  coiled.  The 
latter  can  be  instantly  withdrawn  into  the 
cavities  from  which  they  spring,  and  as 
quickly  shot  forth  again.  The  Ctenophora 
have  a  nervous  system  and  complex  diges- 

tive  apparatus.  a,  a.  Tentacula; 

b.  Mouth. 

CLASS    II.      ANTHOZOA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Anthozoans  (flower-like 
animals)  or  Polyps  (many-footed)  comprise  the  Coalenterates 
in  which  a  distinct  digestive  sac  opens  below  into  the  general 
cavity  of  the  body,  though  separated  from  the  body-walls  by 
an  intervening  space.  The  mouth  is  surrounded  by  one  or 
more  rows  of  hollow  tentacles,  which  are  covered  with  cilia 
in  constant  motion,  to  produce  currents  for  bringing  food 


366  SUBKLNGJXXM:  CCELE^TEEATA. 

Fig.  It5%.  Fig.  U53. 


Single  Anthozoan  or  Polyp 
of  Coralfaum  rubn/.m. 
Red  Coral  magnified. 


Single  Polyp  magnified. 
Tentacles  closed  and  open. 


Fig. 


within  their  reach.  Everything  nutritive  is  at  once  grasped 
and  tumbled  into  the  stomach,  and  the  indigestible  portions 
ejected  by  the  same  oral  orifice. 

The  growth  of  a  polypidom,  as  the  "sea-fan,"  is  briefly 
this:  An  egg  produces  an  embryo  that  swims  freely  till, 
attaching  itself  to  some  substance,  it  develops  into  a  mature 
animal  which,  by  budding,  becomes  two  individuals,  united 
by  a  leathery  integument  (ccenosarc).  Be- 
peated  buddings  produce  a  colony,  each  one 
acting  independently,  so  far  as  gathering  and 
digesting  food  is  concerned,  yet  all  joined  by 
the  investing  ccenosarc,  with  its  anastomosing 
canals.  Meanwhile  the  coenosarc,  like  the 
bark  of  a  tree,  is  secreting  on  its  inner  surface 
a  horny  substance  that  builds  up  an  internal 
stem  or  skeleton  of  sclerolasic  coral.  While 
living,  the  fleshy  exterior  conceals  the  stony 
frame,  but  when  taken  from  the  water  the 
polyp-cells  shrivel  up  and  lay  bare  the  coral, 
the  hardened  coenosarc  exhibiting  all  varieties 
of  color,  according  to  the  species.  At  certain 
times,  eggs  are  developed  by  different  members  of  the  com- 
munity to  swim  away  and  found  new  colonies. 


Coralfium  rvbrum, 
Red  Coral. 


CLASS    ANTHOZOA. 
Mg.  U55. 


Madrepdra  asp$ra,  Madrepore,  right-hand  side  alive. 


The  Red  Coral,  so  highly  prized  for  jewelry,  is  sclerobasic, 
and  has  calcareous  particles  mingled  with  the  horny,  animal 
matter  by  which  it  is  more  thoroughly  solidified,  and  thus  sus- 
ceptible of  a  high  polish. 


Mg.  1*56. 


Gvrgoma flabellum,  Sea-fan. 


268 


SUBKItfGDOM    CCELENTEEATA. 


Fig. 


The  Sea-fan  is  another  representative  form  of  sclerobasio 

coral,  the  branches  having  a  horny  axis  (as  may  be  detected 

by  the  smell  in  burning),  and  uniting  in  a  beautiful  net- work. 

The  Madrepores   and  other  reef-forming  corals  deposit 

within  the  tissues  of  the  animal  a  calcareous  frame- work  of 

sclerodermic  coral. 

The  Mushroom  Coral  is 
remarkable  as  being  the 
skeleton  of  a  single  Polyp, 
often  fifteen  inches  in  diam- 
eter. Though  fixed  in  its 
early  stages,  it  becomes  free, 
and,  but  for  its  habit  of  lying  in  the  clefts  of  the  rocks, 
would  be  speedily  destroyed  by  the  violence  of  the  waves. 

The  Organ-pipe  Coral  consists  of  cylindrical  tubes  arranged 
like  the  pipes  in  a  church  organ.  Each  one  is  the  cell  of 
a  single  polyp,  and  the  whole  number  in  the  mass  is  the 
progeny  of  the  one  that  first  became  fixed  at  the  base. 

Fig.  U58. 


Ctenactis  echinata,  Mushroom  Coral. 


'I'utnpora  musica,  Organ-pipe  Coral. 


*  Dana,  in  describing  the  coral  reefs  of  the  Pacific,  says— The  actiniae  (Fig.  459) 
may  well  be  called  the  asters,  carnations  and  anemones  of  the  submarine  garden ; 
the  tubipores  (Fig.  458)  are  literally  its  pink  beds  ;  the  gorgoniae  (Fig.  456)  its  flow, 
ering  twigs ;  the  madrepores  (Fig.  455)  its  plants  and  shrubbery.  Astrseas  (star 
corals)  often  form  domes  amid  the  grove,  a  dozen  feet  or  more  in  diameter,  em- 
bellished  with  green  or  purple  blossoms,  which  stud  the  surface  like  gems ;  hemi- 
spheres of  meandrina  (brain  coral)  appear  as  if  enveloped  in  a  network  of  flowering 
Vines ;  and  vases  of  madrepores  stand  on  a  cylindrical  base  covered  with  branches 
spreading  gracefully  from  the  center  and  decked  with  sprigs  of  tinted  polyps. 


CLASS    HYDEOZOA.  269 

The  Sea  Anemone  is  a  soft-bodied  Polyp,  that  can  change 
its  locality  at  will,  adhering  to  the  rock  by  a  fleshy  disk  that 
adapts  itself  to  all  inequalities.  Its  stomach  is  simply  a  sac 
suspended  in  the  cavity  of  the  body,  into  which  it  opens  at 
the  bottom  by  a  wide  aperture.  Between  the  stomach  and 


Metridlum  marginatum,  Sea-anemone  or  Actinia. 
A.  Opened;  B.  Closed;   C.  Opening. 

the  body-walls  are  mesenteric  spaces,  which  communicate 
freely  with  the  numerous  hollow  tentacles.  By  muscular 
contraction,  water  is  forced  from  these  chambers  into  the 
tentacles,  to  prolong  them.  The  animal,  plastered,  as  it 
were,  to  a  rock,  with  its  tentacles  bloomed  out  like  the  rays 
of  its  flowery  namesake,  awaits  its  prey ;  and  woe  to  the  luck- 
less victim  that  walks  over  the  trap  and  springs  it  into 
activity.  (See  Fig.  393.) 


CLASS    III.      HYDROZOA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Hydrozoa  (water-dragor; 
animals),  or  Jelly-fishes,*  have  no  mesenteric  spaces,  and 
the  eggs  are  developed  on  the  external  instead  of  the  internal 

*  On  account  of  the  stinging  sensation  produced  when  handled,  the  animals 
belonging  to  this  class  have  heen  called  Acalephse  (Nettles) ;  Medusae  from  the 
numerous  tentacles  resembling  the  hair  of  Medusa ;  and  Jelly-fishes  from  the  gelati- 
nous nature  of  their  substance. 


270 


Fig.  k60. 


SUBKIKGDOM    CCELENTEEATA. 

surface  of  the  body-wall.  Interspers- 
ing the  tentacles  and  other  parts  of 
the  body  are  cells  containing  long, 
spirally-coiled  threads,  barbed  and 
serrated,  which  dart  forth  with  incon- 
ceivable velocity  to  lasso  their  prey.* 


Fig. 


Lasso. 


Pelagla  cyanetta,  Jelly-fish. 

The  Discophorae  (disc-bearers) 
include  those  Jelly-fishes  with  an 
umbrella-like  disc,  by  the  contraction 
of  which  the  water  is  expelled  and 
swimming  effected.  Some  of  this 
family  measure  seven  feet  in  diam- 
eter, with  tentacles  a  hundred  feet  in 

*  They  are  the  terror  of  bathers,  as  the  pain  in- 
flicted by  the  lash  of  their  envenomed  filaments  is 
exceedingly  deranging  to  the  whole  nervous  sys- 
tem, though  at  first  seeming  to  be  no  more  than 
the  tingling  sensation  of  the  common  stinging  nettle. 


CLASS    HYDROZOA. 


271 


Fig.  U62. 


length ;  yet  so  largely  composed  of  water  that,  when  dried, 
nothing  is  left  but  a  film  scarcely  sufficient  to  stain  a  sheet 
of  white  paper.  They  are  voracious,  feeding  on  small  fishes, 
crustaceans,  and  even  on 
their  own  species.  Mere 
transparent  masses  of 
jelly,  and  only  visible 
because  of  their  brilliant 
colors,  they  move 
through  the  water  rapid- 
ly, and  lasso  their  prey 
with  great  precision. 

The  Siphonophorse 
(tube-bearers)  are  free 
swimmers  and  character- 
ized by  having  one  or 
more  large  air- sacs, 
giving  great  buoyancy. 

The  Hydroidae  (hy- 
dra-form) include  the 
compound  Sertularians 
(see  Fig.  393)  and  the 
simple  Hydras.  The 
former  resemble  minute 
ferns,  and  are  often  mis- 
taken for  sea- weed.  Some 
species  of  Hydrse  are 
found  in  fresh  water, 
attached  to  the  stems  of 

plants.  When  contracted,  they  are  a  little  mass  of  green 
jelly.  Expanded,  their  body  is  a  tube,  half  an  inch  long, 
not  larger  than  sewing-thread.*  By  the  sucker  at  the  base 


PhysaMa  utriculus,  Portuguese  Man-of-war. 
Tropical  Atlantic. 


*  It  may  even  be  turned  inside  out  like  a  glove— what  was  the  outer  surface 
becoming  a  stomach  and  beginning  to  digest  the  food,  and  what  was  the  intestinal 
canal  taking  up  the  functions  of  absorption  and  respiration.  Sever  a  Hydra's 
stomach,  and  the  mouth  will  still  keep  taking  in  food,  though  there  is  nothing  to 
hold  it  until  the  digestive  organ  grows  again.  "  The  same  Polyp  may  be  successively 
inverted,  cut  in  sections,  and  turned  back  again  without  serious  harm." 


272 


SUBKINGDOM    CCELENTEKATA. 


they  attach  themselves  at  will  to  any  solid  object     Their 
mouth  is  surrounded  by  hollow  tentacles,  by  which   they 

seize    their  food,  and 
2  t         ,  quickly  benumb  it.     Cut 

into    pieces,    each    part 

3\  /      *^/  quickly    grows    into   s 

perfect  animal. 

Fig.  ItSU. 


The     Campanularia 
are  allied  to  the  Sertula- 

Fresh  water  Hydras.  1.  Stem  of  plant, ;  2.  Hydra  "a.  From  their  bell- 
attached  and  budding ;  3.  Partly  expanded;  shaped  CUpS  there  drop 
4  Fully  expanded ;  5.  Free  and  progressing.  ^  ^  maturity  free 

Medusoids.     After  leading  an  independent  and  locomotive 

existence  for  a  time,  these  produce  ova  and  sperm -cells, 

the  resulting  embryos  of  which  fix  themselves 

and    develop  into  plant-like    colonies,  from 

which  fresh  medusoids  may  bud.     The  Med- 

usoid  little  resembles  the  plant-like  Zoophyte 

from  which  it  thus  springs.     It  sails  through 

the  water  by  the  contraction  of  its  bell,  the 

tentacles  hanging  like  a  fringe  below,  and  the  four  radiating 

canals  leading  to  its  central  stomach. 


Medusoid. 


CLASS    SPONGIDA.  273 


CLASS    IV,     SPONGIDA. 

The  Sponge  of  commerce  is  the  frame-work  which,  in  the 
living  animal,  is  covered  with  a  slimy  material  resembling 
the  white  of  an  egg,  but  so  delicate  that 
it  is  usually  washed  off  by  merely  draw- 
ing the  mass  from  the  water.  This 
investing  sponge-flesh  consists  of  numer- 
ous minute  nuclei  acting  independently 
of  one  another,  and  yet  individually  con- 
tributing to  the  sustenance  of  the  whole 
colony.  Canals  permeate  this  gelati- 
nous substance  in  every  direction.  The 
smaller  ones  permit  the  ingress  of  water  Living  Sponge  magnified. 
to  take  the  place  of  that  constantly  rushing  out  by  the  larger 
orifices.  These  currents  are  due  to  the  action  of  cilia  in 
enlarged  portions  of  the  canals,  and  thus  food  is  diffused 
throughout  the  mass.  The  cells  along  the  route  select  and 
appropriate  the  nutritive  particles.  The  Common  Sponge 
(Euspongm  officindlis]  is  not  a  single  sponge  but  a  commu- 
nity, "representing,"  as  Huxley  remarks,  "a  kind  of  sub- 
aqueous city,  where  the  people  are  arranged  about  the  streets 
and  roads  in  such  a  way  that  each  can  choose  his  food  from 
the  water  as  it  passes  along."  The  skeleton  is  composed  of 
horny  fibres  interlacing  and  strengthened  with  spicules  of 
lime  or  flint.  The  frame-work  in  some  species  is  calcareous 
or  silicious.  In  the  Euplectella  the  silicious  fibres  form  a 
beautiful  mesh  of  lace,  known  as  Venus's  Flower  Basket, 
formerly  considered  an  unique  specimen  of  Chinese  industry. 


VI.     SUBKINGDOM    PROTOZOA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Protozoans  (first  ani- 
mals) are  small,  aquatic,  mostly  microscopic  unicellular 
animals.  They  are  composed  of  a  mucous,  albuminous 
substance  called  protoplasm.  As  yet,  neither  nerves,  mus- 
cles, circulatory  or  digestory  organs  have  been  discovered. 
They,  however,  apparently  possess  the  functions  of  animal 
life — motion,  sensation,  nutrition,  and  reproduction.  In- 
numerable Invertebrates  feed  upon  them.  The  "Edible- 
earths"  and  "Infusorial-earths"  probably  owe  their  nutri- 
tive value  to  the  remains  of  Protozoans.  All  subdivisions 
are  provisional. 


Fiq. 


CLASS    INFUSORIA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Infusoria  (originating 
in  infusions)  include  a  large  variety  of  microscopic  animal- 
cules found  in  vegetable  infusions  that  have 
been  left  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  few  days. 
Their  presence  is  doubtless  due  to  the  dried 
bodies  of  their  ancestors  or  minute  germs  float- 
ing in  the  air  till  a  lodgment  in  the  infusion 
favors  development.* 

Vorticels  (vortex)  are  types  of  fixed  forms. 
To  the  naked  eye  they  are  simply  mold  on  the 
stem  of  a  plant ;  but  in  the  microscope  the  mold 
becomes  a  forest  of  single   animalcules,   each 
VwticeUa.      attached  by  a  stem  several  times  its  own  length, 

*  Re-moistening  the  hard,  baked  mud  from  the  bottom  of  a  dried-up  pool  is  found 
to  re-vivify  them  in  innumerable  quantities.  "  These  Infusoria,"  says  Fignier,  "  may 
be  and  are  without  doubt  carried  to  great  distances,  for  an  indefinite  period  of  time, 
cud  then,  abandoned  on  some  ledge  of  rock,  on  a  housetop,  in  the  cleft  of  a  wall,  or 


CLASS    RHIZOPODA.  275 

and  capable  of  being  contracted  into  a  spiral  form.  The 
ciliated  fringe  can  also  be  retracted  within  the  body. 
They  multiply  by  fission,  budding,  and  encysting.  If 
by  fission,  the  body  simply  splits  into  two  portions,  each 
becoming  a  new  being.*  If  by  budding,  a  swelling  com- 
mences near  the  base  of  the  bell,  which  at  length  detaches 
itself,  and  developing  a  stalk,  becomes  fixed.  If  by  encysting, 
a  coating  of  gelatinous  matter 
covers  the  bell,  the  stem  and 
cilia  being  absorbed.  In  time, 
the  cyst  bursting,  a  number  of 
germs  are  set  free,  which  develop 
stalks  and  become  like  the  orig- 
inal. It  has  been  calculated  that 
the  progeny  of  a  single  individual 
of  some  species  of  Infusoria  may 
amount  to  two  hundred  million 

in  a  month.  Noctiluca  mUiaris,  magnified. 

The  Noctilucse  are  examples 

of  free  forms,  in  which  locomotion  is  effected  by  thread-like 
organs  called  flagella.  The  phosphorescent  glow  upon  the 
sea  is  largely  due  to  their  presence. 

CLASS   RHIZOPODA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Khizopods  (root-footed) 
are  minute  masses  of  gelatinous  matter  capable  of  assuming 
all  varieties  of  shape  according  to  the  irritation  result- 
under  the  capita'  of  a  column,  lie  there  undisturbed  ;  but  let  a  drop  of  water  approach 
it,  and  the  dormant  being  awakes  immediately,  the  microscopic  Lazarus  springs 
again  into  existence,  feeds  and  multiplies  as  before,  and  its  life,  suspended  possibly 
for  years,  resumes  its  interrupted  course  1" 

*  "  By  this  mode  of  propagation,"  says  Dujardin, "  an  Infusorian  is  the  half  of  the 
one  which  preceded  it,  the  fourth  of  the  parent  of  that,  the  eighth  of  its  grand- 
parent, and  so  on,  if  indeed  we  can  apply  the  terms  father  or  mother  to  an  animal, 
which  must  see  in  its  two  halves  the  grandfather  himself,  by  a  new  division  again, 
living  in  his  four  parts.  We  might  imagine  such  an  Infusorian  to  be  an  aliquot 
part  of  one  like  it,  which  had  lived  years,  and  even  ages  before,  and  which  by 
continued  subdivisions  into  pairs  might  continue  to  live  forever  by  its  successive 
development." 


276 


SUBKINGDOM     PROTOZOA. 


ing  from  contact  with  foreign  substances.     Some  species  are 
naked,  while  others  are  protected  by  a  shell.    When  particles 


Fig.  U69. 


Amoeba  radiosa,  Rhizopod. 


NummuVltes  ataica,  Rhizopod. 


of  food  are  wafted  into  contact  with  this  gelatinous  mass, 
firrger-like  processes — in  some  species  filamentous,  in  others 
blunted — shoot  out  and  wrap  up  the  nutritive  particles, 
so  completely  enveloping  them  as  to  appear  like  a  thin 


Fig.  UU. 


ForaminifSra  in  Chalk. 


CLASS    GREGAKINIDA.  277 

film  over  the  enclosed  mass.  The  food  is  gradually  absorbed  by 
the  coating  of  this  extemporized  stomach.  The  processes  thus 
shot  forth  and  answering  as  hands  or  feet  are  termed  psendopo- 
dia  (false  feet).  In  those  species  protected  by  a  shell  there  is  the 
same  power  of  throwing  out  pseud opodia  at  the  orifice  for 
locomotion  or  prehension,  and  in  the  latter  case,  of  transpos- 
ing the  prehensile  instrument  into  a  mouth  or  alimentary 
canal.  Eeproduction  is  by  fission,  budding  and  cysting,  a 
detached  pseud opodium  being  developed  sometimes  into  a 
separate  animal.  When,  by  budding,  the  new  Ehizopod  re- 
mains attached  to  the  shell  of  the  parent,  in  some  species, 
particularly  the  Foraminifera  (hole-bearing),*  it  gives  rise  to 
the  beautiful  aggregated  forms  known  as  Nummulites,  Globi- 
germas,  etc. 

CLASS    GREGARINIDA. 

General  Characteristics. — The  Gregarinidans  (flocks) 
are  parasitic  forms  found  particularly  in  Cockroaches  and 
Earth-worms.  They  give  out  no  pseudopodia, 
and  assimilate  food  only  by  the  absorption  on 
the  general  surface,  as  is  common  in  internal 
parasites.  Their  anatomical  structure  usually 
presents  a  single  cell,  having  in  it,  among  fatty 
granules,  a  central  vesicle,  itself  enclosing  a 
solid  particle.  Elongation  and  contraction  of  magnified. 
the  body  are  the  ordinary  signs  of  life. 

Still  lower  forms,  however,  are  revealed  by  the  microscope, 
as  the  Monera,  comprising  the  genera  Bathybius,  Prot- 
amoeba,  etc.,  by  some  Naturalists  disbelieved  in  as 
really  organic  beings,  and  by  others  doubtfully 
referred  to  the  Vegetable  rather  than  to  the  Animal 
Kingdom.  Of  these  Batliybius,\  a  mass  of  albumin- 
ous jelly  neither  distinctively  animal  nor  plant,  is 
considered  the  simplest  structure  known  to  man. 

*  See  "  Fourteen  Weeks  in  Geology,"  pp.  188  and  198. 

t  Recently  Huxley  retracts  his  opinion  concerningtiathybius  as  having  vitality. 


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INDEX, 

GLOSSARIAL,  EXPLANATIVE,  AND  REFERENTIAL. 


AbranchiSta,  235,  236. 

Abranchiates,  236. 

Acalephae  (nettles),  269. 

Acanthocephalidae,  238. 

Acaridse,  228. 

Acarina  (mite),  226,  228. 

Acephala,  250. 

Acipenser  oxyrhyncus  (sharp-nosed),  188. 

Adder,  176. 

Adipose  (fatty),  210. 

^Eolis,  245,  248. 

Acrydidie,  222. 

Acrydium  alutaceum,  221. 

Agamidae,  172. 

Agile  Gibbon,  20. 

Aix  sponsa,  154. 

Alar  (wing),  137. 

Alaudidae,  120. 

Albatross,  158. 

Alca  impennis  (wingless),  the  Great 
Auk,  160. 

Alcedinidse,  125. 

Alces  raalchis,  69. 

Alcidse,  159. 

Alectorides,  113, 145,  149. 

Alligatoridse,  171. 

Alligator  mississippiensis,  171. 

Altricial  (immature),  125. 

Ambergris,  87. 

Ambulacra,  260. 

Ameividie,  173. 

Ameiya  sexlineata,  173. 

American  Lion,  34. 

American  Bear  98. 

Amoeba  (changing)  radiosa,  276. 

Amorphous  (wanting  form).    (See  p.  133.) 

Ampelidas,  117. 

Ampelis  cedrorum,  117. 

Amphibia,  179. 

Amphipneusta  (double-breathing),  179. 

Anaconda,  177. 

Analogue  (an  organ  in  one  species  equiv- 
alent to  a  different  organ  in  another,  or 
a  representative  species  in  one  country 
related  to  one  in  another),  34. 

Anastomosing  (running  into  each  other", 

Anatidae  (duck-family),  151,  152. 
Anguillidse,  198. 
Anguilla  latirpBtris,  J98. 


Annelida  (ringed),  203,  235. 

Annelids,  235. 

Annulata,  236. 

Annuloids,  236. 

Ant-eater,  Giant,  104 

Antelope,  Prong-horn,  68. 

AnthozOa,  265. 

Anthrenus  (a  genus  of  beetles),  224. 

Antilope  rupicapra,  59,  64;  dorcas,59,  64; 

kudu,  59,  64  ;  gnu,  59, 65  ;  oryx,  59,  65. 
Anthropoid  Apes  (man-like),  20. 
Antilocapridae,  53,  68. 
Antilocapra  americana,  68. 
Ant-lion,  223. 
Antrostomus    (cave-mouthed)    vociferus 

(loud-voiced),  126. 
Ants,    egg,    larva    and    pupa   of,    209; 

Agricultural,    209;    Sanguinary,    209; 

Foraging,     209;     Leaf-cutting,     209; 

White,  209. 

Anura  (without  a  tail),  179. 
Aphidse  (exhausters),  220. 
Aphis  rosse,  201. 
Apidae,  206. 

Aplocerns  montanus,  59,  63. 
Apoda  (footless),  124. 
Apollo  Belvedere,  17. 
Apple-tree  Borer,  217. 
Apterygidse  (without  wings),  143. 
Apteryx  australis,  145. 
Arachnida  (spiders),  203,  226. 
Arachnids,  226. 
Aranese,  226. 
Archjeopteryx,  165. 
Archer,  192. 

Arcuate  (bow-shaped),  148. 
Arctic  Skua,  157. 
Ardeidae,  148. 

Ardea  herodias,  148 ;  clnerea,  150. 
Argonautidse,  242. 
Argonauta  argo,  242. 
Argus  giganteup,  139. 
Aristotle's  Lantern,  261. 
Armadillo    (armed),  Nine-banded,   105; 

Three-banded,  106. 
Articulate  (jointed),  203. 
j  Articulata  (jointed),  203. 
Artiodactyls,  52,  53 

Arvicola  (field-in habiter) ;  A.  riparia,96. 
Ascidian  (small  leathern-bottle),  256. 
AsiphonSta,  250,  252. 


INDEX. 


299 


Ass,  Wild,  77. 

Astacidae,  281. 

Astacus  fiuvialis,  231. 

Asterla,  261. 

AsteroidSa  (star-like),  261. 

Astrophyton  agassizii,  262. 

Astur  atricapillus  (black-headed),  134. 

Ateles  pentadactyliis,  25. 

Auchenia  (neck)  llama,  56. 

Auk,  159;  impennis,  160. 

Aves  (birds),  110,  113. 

Avocet,  146. 

Axolotl,  183. 

Aye-Aye  (at 

Ayrshire,  61. 

Bab-i-rous-sa,  74. 

Baboon,  25. 

Bactrian  Camel,  54,  55. 

Badger,  40,  43  ;  cut  of,  44. 

Balanidae  (acorn),  234. 

Balanus  crenatus,  233. 

Balsena  mysticetus,  86 ;  skeleton  of,  83. 

Balaenidae  (whalebone),  85. 

Baleen  (whalebone),  85. 

Barbel,  197. 

Bark-borer,  218. 

Barnacle,  229  ;  Stalked,  234  ;  Acorn,  234. 

Barn  Swallow,  117. 

Bascanion  constrictor,  176, 178. 

Bassaridae,  29. 

Bassaris     astuta     (fox-cunning),    Civet 

Cat,  49. 

Bathybius,  277. 
Bat,  16;   Vampire,   89;   Horse-shoe  or 

Geoffrey's,  88,  89  ;  Hare-lipped,  89,  90 ; 

Wing-footed,  89,  91 ;  Puff,  89 ;  Common 

or  Little  Brown,  89,  90. 
Bear,  29 ;  Black,  46 ;  cut  of,  47  ;  Grizzly, 

46  ;  cut  of,  47 ;  White,  46 ;  cut  of,  48 ; 

cut  of  Brown,  278. 
Bear  Howler,  25  ;  cut  of,  26. 
Bear  Monkey,  24. 
Beaver,  95 ;  American,  98. 
Bee,  Honey,  206 ;  Humble,  207. 
Bee  Lice,  215. 
Beetle,  206. 
Beetle,  Stag,  216  ;  Burying,  217 ;  Striped 

Squash,  217  :  Long-horn  Musk,  218. 
Beluga    canadensis,    White    Whale,   a 

species  of  porpoise,  84. 
Bernicla  canadensis,  153. 
Birnana,  16. 
Bird,  plumage  of,  111. 
Bird  of  Paradise,  124. 
Bison,  American,  59,  61. 
Blepharidse,  192. 
Blepharis  crinitus,  192. 
Blue-bird,  115. 
Blue  Hen-hawk,  135. 
Blue  Jay,  123. 
Bobolink,  120. 
Bob- white,  143. 

Boa  anaconda,  177 ;  hooks  of,  177. 
Boidae,  177. 
Bombus  (buzz),  208. 
Bombycidae.  212. 
Bombyx  mori,  212. 
Bonasa  umbellus,  142. 


Bos  taurus,  59;  americanus,  59:  buba- 
lus,  59,  62 ;  grunniens,  59,  62 ;  mdicus, 
59,63. 

Bovidae  (ox),  53,  58,  59. 

Bowerbankia,  257. 

BrachiopOda,  242,  255. 

Brachyurus  cacajao,  25. 

Branchiata,  235. 

Branchiates,  235. 

Branchiostoma  lanceolatus,  199. 

Bradypodidse  (slow-footed),  105. 

Bradypus  tridactylus  (three-toed),  Com- 
mon Sloth,  105. 

Brenthus  nasicus,  218. 

Brevipennes  (short-winged),  113, 143. 

BryozOa  (moss  animals),  257. 

Bubo  virginianus,  133. 

Buffalo,  59. 

Bufonid83  (toad),  180. 

Bufo  americanus,  181. 

Bnll-frog,  180. 

Burying-beetle,  217. 

Bush-dog,  28. 

Butcher-bird,  118. 

Buthus  carohuianus,  228. 

Butterflies,  206,  211. 

Buzzard,  Turkey,  136. 

Byssus  (fine  flax),  252. 

Cacatua  sulphurea,  132. 

Caillette,  52. 

Callorhinus  ursinus,  49. 

Camelidse,  53,  54. 

Camelus  dromedarius,  54 ;  bactrianns,  54. 

Camel,  53 ;  foot  of,  54 ;  water-cells  of,  54. 

Camelopardalis  giraffa,  58. 

Campanularia  volubilis,  272. 

Campephilus  principalis,  130. 

Canada  Goose,  153. 

Cancridae,  231. 

Cancer  pagurus,  230. 

Canidae  (canis.  dog),  29,  37. 

Canis  aureus  (golden),  37,  39 ;  lupus,  37 : 

familiaris,  37,  38. 
Capra  cegagrus   (wild),  59;    cut   of.  66; 

ibex,  59 ;  cut  of,  66. 
Caprimulgidae  (goat-suckers),  126. 
Caracara  Eagle,  135. 
Carapace,  166. 
Cardiidte,  251. 
Caribou,  69. 

Carinaria.  245 :  mediterranean,  248. 
Carinaridae,  249. 
CarnivOra  (flesh-devouring),  16 ;  order  of, 

Carnivorous  tooth,  29. 

Carp,  European,  197. 

Castoridse,  95,  98. 

Castor  canadensis,  98. 

Cattle  tick,  western.  229. 

Cat,   Wild,  31;   Domestic,   31,  35;   out 

of,  34. 

Catamount,  33. 
Cat-monkey,  92. 
Catarhine,  19. 
Catharista  atrata,  137. 
Cathartidse,  133,  136. 
Cat-fish,  195. 
Cat  Owl,  134. 


300 


ItfDEX. 


Caviidse,  95, 101. 

Cebidae,  19,  25. 

Cecidomyidse,  214. 

Cecidomyia  (high-leaping  fly)  destructor, 

214;  tritici,214. 
Cedar-bird,  117. 

Centipede  (hundred-footed),  203,  225. 
CephalopOda  (head-footed),  242 
Cerambycidae  (long-horns),  217. 
Cerambyx  moschatus,  218. 
Cere  (naked  skin  at  base  of  bill),  113. 
Cervical  (neck)  vertebrae,  56. 
Cervidae  (cervus,  deer),  53,  69. 
Cervus  canadensis,  69 ;  cut  of,  71 ;  capre- 

olus.  69,  70:  virginianus.  69,  72;  dama, 

69,  72. 

Ceryle  alcyon,  126. 
Cestoididse  (girdle-like),  240. 
Cetac8a  (cetus,  whale),  16,  82. 
Chaetura  pelasgia,  128. 
Chaetodontidae  (hair-teeth),  192. 
Chaetodon  rostratus  (beaked),  192. 
Cluimaeleonidae,  171. 
Chamseleon  vulgaris.  171. 
Chamois  (shdm'-m$),  59,  63 ;  cut,  64. 
Charadrius  virgimcus,  140. 
Charming  of  Snakes,  175. 
Cheiromys  madagascariensis,  28. 
Cheiroptera,  16,  87. 
Chelydra  serpentina,  166,  167. 
Chelydidae,  166,  167. 
Chelys  matamata,  166, 167. 
Chelonidae,  166, 168. 
Chelonia  midas,  166. 
ChilopOda,  225. 
Chimney-swallow,  128. 
Chimpanzee  (Chim-j)dn'-zee\  20. 
Chipmunk,  100. 
Chlamyphorus   (cloak-bearer)   truncatus 

(truncated),  106. 
Chordeiles  pqpetue,  126. 
Chrysochloridae,  92. 
Chrysochloris     (golden    green)    aureus 

(golden)  94. 
Chrysomelidae,  217. 
Chuck-will's  Widow,  127. 
Cicadidae,  219. 
Cicada,  206 ;  septen-decim,220 ;  tri-decim, 

220. 

Ciconiidae,  147. 
Ciconia  alba  (white),  150. 
Cirripeds  (hair-footed),  233. 
Cirripedia  (curl-footed),  229,  233. 
Cirri,  233. 

Cistudo  (box)  virginiana,  166-,  167. 
Civet,  29,  36. 
Civet  Cat,  29,  49. 
Clam,  250. 

Classes,  how  formed,  11. 
Classification,  11. 
Clavellinidje,  256. 
Clavellina     (little    knob)    lepidifonnis, 

256. 

Cliidae,  249. 

Clio,  245 ;  borealis,  249. 
Clupeidse  (shad),  195. 
Clupea  serrata,  195. 
Cobbler-fish,  192. 
Cobra  de  Capello,  176. 


Coccygus     (cuckoo)     americanus,    129- 
erythrophthalmus,  129. 

Cockatoo,  Great  Sulphur-crested,  132. 

Cod-flsh,  193. 

Coenosarc  (common  flesh),  266 

CoelenterSta,  265. 

Colaptes  auratus,  131. 

Coleoptgra  (sheath-winged),  206,  215. 
j  Colobe,  20. 

Colobus  polycomus,  20,  24. 
I  Collurio  borealis,  118. 
:  Colubridae  (snake),  177. 
|  Columbae  (doves),  137. 

Columbidse,  137. 
I  Columba  livia,  137. 
j  Colymbus  torquatus,  159. 

Comatula  rosacea,  263. 

Comparative  Anatomy,  laws  of,  201. 

Conchifers  (konk'-l-fers),  250. 

Condor  of  the  Andes,  137. 

Condylura     (excrescence    tail)    cristata 
(crested),  94. 

Condyle  (knob  hinging  head  to  epine),  15 

Conirostres  (cone-beaked),  112. 

Conurus  (cone-tailed)  carolinensis,  132. 

Coot,  151. 

Corallium  rubrum  (red  coral),  266. 

Coral,  Red,  266;  Madrepore,  267;  Mush- 
room, 268 ;  Organ-pipe,  268. 

Coreidse,  220. 

Coreus  tristis,  220. 

Cormorant,  156. 

Corvidae,  122. 

Corvus   corax,    122;    americanus,    122; 
frugilegus,  123. 

Coryphaena  hippuris,  194. 

Cotumix  communis,  143. 

Cougar,  (koo'-gar),  33. 

Cow,  Jersey,  61 ;  Ayrshire,  61. 

Cow-bird,  121. 

Crab,  Fiddler,  Sand,  Hermit,  Soft-shell, 
231 ;  Horse-shoe,  232 :  Little-red,  254. 

Crane,  Whooping,  149,  150. 

Cray-fish,  231. 

Crinoid,  living,  264 ;  adult,  free,  263. 

Crinoidga  (lily-like),  263. 

Crocodilidae,  170. 

Crocodilus  vulgaris,  170. 

Crocodile,  170. 

Cross-bill.  119. 

Crotalidae  (rattler),  175. 

Crotalus  durissus,  175. 

Crow,  Common,  122. 

Cms  (hind  limb),  110, 113. 

CrustacSa  (crust),  203,  229. 

Ctenactis  echinata,  268. 

CtenophOra  (comb-bearers),  265. 

Cuckoo,     Black-billed,     129:     Yellow- 
billed,  129. 

Cuculidae,  129. 

Culex  pipiens  (piping),  213. 

Culicidse,  213. 

Curculionidae.  218. 

Curculio,  218. 

Curvirostra     (curve-beaked)    leucoptera 
(white-winged),  119. 

Cuttle-fish,  243. 

Cyanura  cristata  (blue-tail  crested),  123. 

Cyclopidae  (circle-eye), 


INDEX. 


301 


Cyclops  communis. 

Cygnus    americanus,     152 ;     buccinator 

(trumpeter).  152;  olor,  153. 
Cynipidse,  210. 
Cynips  quercus-folii,  210. 
Cynomys  ludovicianus,  101. 
Cynocephalus  mormon,  20,  25. 
Cypreeidae,  246. 
Cyprinidae,  197. 
Cyprinus  auratus  (golden),  197:  carpio, 

197 ;  barbus,  197. 
Cyrtophyllus  concavus,  221. 
Cypselida;  (swift),  127. 
Cystic-worm,  239. 

Daddy  long-legs,  228. 

Daman,  16,  78. 

Dasypodidae  (thick-footed),  105. 

Dasypus  novem-cinctus  (nine-banded), 
105 ;  tri-cinctus  (three-banded),  106. 

Death's-head  Moth,  212. 

DecapOda  (ten-footed),  229,  231. 

Deer,  53,  69;  Fallow,  69,  72;  Musk,  69, 
73 ;  Virginia,  72. 

Delphinidse  (dolphin),  84. 

Delphinus  delphis,  84. 

Dental  Formula,  18. 

Dentalidae  (tooth-like),  246. 

Dentalium  dentalis,  24B. 

Dentirostres  (tooth-beaked),  112. 

Devil's  Darning-needle,  223. 

Dermestes  (a  beetle,  Coleoptera,  in  larval 
state  destructive  to  animal  sub- 
stances), 224, 

Diabrotica  vittata,  217. 

Dibranchiata  (two-gilled),  242. 

Dibranchiates,  242. 

Dicotylidie,  53. 

Dicotyles  (two-cupped)  torquatus  (col- 
lared), 75. 

Didelphidae  (twice-wombed),  108.  . 

Didelphys  virgiriiana,  107. 

Digitigrade  (toe- walking),  40. 

Dinosauria,  165. 

Diodontidse,  190. 

Diomedea  exulans  (banished),  158). 

DiplopOda,  225. 

Diplopods,  225. 

Dipnoi,  185. 

Dipsas  margaritifera,  253. 

DiptSra  (two-winged),  206,  213. 

Dipters,  213. 

Distomidse,  240. 

Distoma  hepaticum,  240. 

Dog,  29,  37,  38. 

Dolphin,  84,  194. 

Dolichonyx  oryzivorus,  120. 

Domestic  Ox,  59;  Sheep,  59,  60; 
Fowl,  143. 

Dor-bug,  216. 

Doves,  113. 

Dragon-fly,  206,  223. 

Dromedary,  54. 

Duck,  113 ;  Wood,  154 :  Summer,  154 ; 
Eider,  154. 

Duck-bill,  16. 

Durham,  60. 

Dytiscidse.  218. 

Dytiscus  fasciventrts,  219. 


Eagle,  White-headea,  136 ;  Caracara,  135. 
Earth-worm  235. 
Earwig,  223,  225. 
Echeneidse,  193. 
Echeneis  albicauda,  193. 
Echidna  bystrix  (porcupine),  108. 
Echinoderma'ta,  259. 
Echinoidea  (spiny),  260,  259. 
Echinus  sphaera,  260. 
Echinorhynchup  gigas,  238. 
Ectoderm  (skin  without),  265. 
Ectopistes  (traveller)  rnigratoria  (migrat 

ing),  138. 

Edentata  (toothless),  16,  104. 
Edible  Crab,  230. 
Edible-earth,  274. 
Eel,  Broad-nosed,  198. 
Eggs,  hatching,  112. 
Ela  smobranchii  (strap-gilled),  186. 
Elephant,  16  ;  Asiatic,  81 ;  African,  81. 
Elephantidse,  79. 

Elephas  africanus,  81 ;  indicus,  81. 
Elytra,  215. 

Endoderm  (skin-within),  265. 
Entomostraca  (insect-shell),  233. 
Epeira  diadema,  227. 
Equidae,  53,  75. 
Equus  asinus,  77 ;  caballus,  76 ;  zebra, 

77. 

Eremophila  cornuta  (horned),  120. 
Erinaceidae,  92,  94. 
Erinaceus  auritus,  94. 
Eriosoma  lanigera,  221. 
Erythacus  rubecula,  115. 
Esocidse,  196. 

Esox  reticulatus,  196 ;  lucius,  197. 
Eumetopias  stelleri,  49. 
Euplectella,  273. 
Euspongia  officinalis,  273. 
Exocoetidae,  194. 

Facets,  204. 

Falcon,  113. 

Falco  sparverius,  134. 

Falconidae,  133, 134. 

Families,  now  indicated,  16. 

Family,  how  formed,  12. 

Felidse  (felis,  cat),  29,  30,  81. 

Felis  concolor  (similar  color),  31,  33;  do- 

mestica,  31 ;   leo,   31 ;   leopardus,  31 ; 

onca,  31 ;  tigris,  31. 
Fiber  zibethicus,  97. 
Finches,  119. 
Fisher,  40 ;  cut  of,  41. 
Fishes,  184. 
Fishing  Frog,  191. 
Fissirostres  (cleft-beaked),  112. 
Fissurelidse,  246. 
Fiesurella  listeri,  246. 
Flagella,  275. 
Flamingo,  151. 
Flat-fish,  193. 
Flea,  Sand,  232. 
Flies,  206 
Flounder,  194. 
Flustra  (sea-mat),  257,  258. 
Fly-catcher,  Great-crested,  126. 
Flying-fi*h,  194. 
Flying  Fox,  91. 


303 


IKDEX. 


Forficulidae,  223. 

Forficula  auricularia,  223. 

Formicidae,  208. 

Formica  sanguinea  (bloody),  209. 

Foraminifgra,  276. 

Fox,  37,  39 ;  cut  of,  40. 

Fringillidse,  119. 

Frontal  (forehead)  sinus  (cavity),  59. 

Frog,  Skeleton  of,  179;  Common,   180: 

Tree,  180. 
Fulica  ainericana,  151. 

Gadidse,  192. 

Galeopithecidae  (cat-ape),  92. 

Galeopithecus  volans  (flying).  92. 

Galllnse,  113,  138. 

Gallinula  martinica,  151. 

Gallinule,  Purple,  151. 

Gallus  bankiva,  143. 

Gaminaridae,  232. 

Ganglions,  13. 

Ganoid8i  (brightness),  189. 

Gar-pike,  189. 

GasteropQda  (belly-footed),  242,  245. 

Gazelle,  59 ;  cut  of,  64. 

Gecko,  172. 

Geckotidse,  172. 

Gemsbok,  African,  59,  65. 

Genera,  how  formed,  12. 

Genet,  36. 

Geococcyx  californianus,  129. 

Geoffrey's  nycteris,  88. 

Geometrical  Spider,  227. 

Geomyidae,  95,  97. 

Geomys  bursarius  (pouched),  97. 

Gibbon,  22. 

Giraffidae,  53,  56. 

Giraffe,  53,  56. 

Glass  Snake,  173. 

Globigerlna,  277. 

Glutton,  44. 

Gnu,  African,  59,  65. 

Golden  Mole,  92. 

Goat,  59,  65 ;  Mountain,  63. 

Goat-suckers,  126. 

Goitered  (swollen-neck)  sheep,  68. 

Gold-fish,  197. 

Golden  Robin,  121;  Plover,  146. 

Goosander,  154. 

Goose,  Canada,  153 ;  Wild,  153. 

Gopher,  95,  100;  Pouched,  97;  tortoise, 

166. 

Gordiidaa  (hair),  239. 
Gordius  aquaticus,  239. 
Gorgonia  flabellum,  267. 
Gorilla,  20.  21. 
Goshawk,  134. 
Graculidse,  155. 
Graculus  carbo,  156. 
GrallatOres,  145. 
Grasshoppers,  206,  222. 
Great  Black-backed  GuU,  157. 
Grebe,  Crested,  159,  160. 
Gregarina  sipunculi,  277. 
Gregarinida  (flocks),  277. 
Gregarious  (in  flocks),  121. 
Grouse,  Ruffed,  142. 
Gruidse,  149. 
Gryllidse,  222. 


Gryllotalpa  (mole-cricket)  vulgaris  (com- 
mon), x%2. 

Guenon  (gwe'nori),  20,  24. 
Guinea  Fowl,  140. 
Guinea  Pig,  95, 101. 
Gull,  113 ;  Great  Black-backed,  157. 
Gular /throat),  155. 
Gnlo  luscus,  40  ;  cut  of,  44. 

Haematopodidaa  (blood-footed),  146. 
Haematopus  palliatus,  145. 
Hair-snake,  238. 
Haliaetus       (sea-eagle)      leucocephalus 

(white-headed),  136. 
Halibut,  194. 
Haliotidse  (sea-ear),  246. 
Hammer  Oyster,  254. 
Hapale  jacchus,  25 ;  cut  of,  26. 
Hedgehog,  92,  94. 
Helicidse  (spiral),  247,  248. 
Hemipte'ra,  219. 
Hemipters,  206,  219. 
HerbivQra  (herb-devouring),  59;  teeth  of, 

60. 

HerodiOnes,  113,  145. 147. 
Heron,  113;  Great  Blue,  148. 
Herring,  195. 

Hesperomys  leucopus,  96. 
Hippopotamidae  (river-horse),  53,  73. 
Hippopotamus  amphibius,  53,  73. 
Hirundinidae,  117. 
Hirundo    (swallow)   horreorum  (of   the 

granaries),  117. 

Hirudinidae  (hirudo,  leech),  238. 
Hirudo  medicinalis  (medicinal),  236,  237 
Hog,  53;  skull  of,  74;  babiroussa,  75. 
Holothuroidea  (whole  gate),  259. 
Hominidae  (homo,  man),  16. 
Homo  (man)  sapiens  (wise),  16. 
Honey-bee,  206 ;  cells  of,  207. 
Horned  Toad,  172. 
Horned-pout,  195. 
Horn-bug,  216. 
House-fly,  214 
Humble-bee,  207. 
Humming-bird,  128. 
Hydroidae,  271. 
HydrozOa,  269. 
Hyena,  29  ;  vulgaris,  37. 
Hydra,  271,  272. 

Hylobatee  agilis,  20 ;  eyndactylue,  20. 
Hymenoptgra,  206. 
Hyracoidea,  16,  78. 
Hyrax  syriacus,  78. 
Hystricidae  (porcupine),  95, 101. 
Hystrix  cristata  (crested),  101. 

Ibex,  59. 

Ibis,  147;  Wood,  148;  religiosa,  148. 

Ichneumonidae,  210. 

Ichneumon-fly,  210. 

Ichneumon,  36 ;  cut  of,  37. 

Icteridse,  120. 

Icterus  baltimore,  121. 

Iguana  tuberculata,  172. 

Imago,  205. 

Imbricate  (lap  like  shingles),  165. 

Infusoria  (infill),  274. 

Insectiv&ra  (insec^eaters),  1.6,  92. 


INDEX. 


303 


Insects,  nervous  system  of,  203 ;  external 
skeleton  of,  204  ;  trachea  of,  204 ;  diges- 
tive apparatus,  204,  205;  antennae  of, 
204;  respiration  of,  204;  eyes  of,  204. 

Insistent  (resting  on),  113. 

Itch-mite,  228. 

Ivory-billed  Woodpecker,  130. 

Ixodidae  (adhere),  229. 

Ixodes  bovis,  229. 

Jackal.  39. 
Jaculidae,  95. 
Jaculus  hudsonius,  96. 
Jaguar,  31 ;  cut  of,  34. 
Jay,  Blue,  123. 
Jelly-fishes,  269. 
Jersey  Cow,  61. 
Julidse,  226. 
Julus  canadensis,  225. 
Jumping  Mouse,  95,  96. 

Kabung,  92. 
Kangaroo,  107. 
Katydid,  221. 
King  Crab,  233. 
King-fisher,  126. 
Koodoo,  64. 

Lacertilia,  171. 

Laciniate  (fringe-like).  151. 

Lamellate  (thin-plated),  113. 

Lamellibranchiata  (thin-plato-gills),  250. 

Larnellirostres    (thin-plate-beaked),  113, 

151. 

Lamp-shell,  255. 
Lamprey,  198. 
Lancelet,  199. 
Land  onails,  247. 
Land  Tortoises,  166. 
Laridae,  156, 157. 
Larus  atricilla,  153. 
Lark,  Shore,  120;  Sky,  120. 
Lasso,  270. 
Laughing  Gull,  153. 
Leaflet,  52. 
Leech,  235,  237. 
Lemuridse  (ghost),  27. 
Lemur  macaco.  27. 
Leopard,  31,  34. 
Lepadidae.  233. 
Lepas  anatifera,  234. 
Lepidoptgra,  206,  211. 
Lepidosiren  annectens  (uniting),  185. 
Lepidosteus  osseus  (bony),  189. 
Leporidae,  95,  102. 
Leptoglossa  (slender-tongued),  171. 
Lepus  americanus,  102 ;   sylvaticus,  102 : 

callotis,  103. 
Lernceidae,  233. 
Lernoeonema  spratti,  233. 
Libellulidae,  223. 
Limacidse,  248. 
Limax  antiquorum,  247. 
Limicolae  (shore-dwellers),  113, 145. 
Limulus  mollucanus,  235. 
Limulidae,  233. 
Lingula  anatina.  255. 
Lingulidae  (tongue),  255. 
Lion,  31 ;  cut  of,  32. 


Liver-flukes,  237. 

Lizard,  common  striped,  173. 

Llama,  56. 

Lobster,  203,  229  ;  River,  231. 

Locustidae,  222. 

Locust,  Leather-colored.  221. 

Loliginidse,  243. 

Loligo  bartramii,  243. 

Longipennes  (long-winged),  113, 151,  156. 

Loon,  113,  159. 

Lophiidae  (crested),  190. 

Lophius  americanus,  191. 

Loricata,  169,  170. 

Loris  gracilis,  27 ;  cut  of,  28. 

Lucamdse,  216. 

Lucanus  cervus,  216. 

Lumbricidae,  237. 

Lumbricus  terrestris,  237. 

Lutra  canadensis,  40,  45. 

Lynx  canadensis,  31,  35;  ruras,  81,  36. 

Lyre  Bird,  124. 

Mackerel,  192. 

Macropodidae  (long-footed),  107. 

Macropus  nu.jor,  107. 

Madrepora  aspera,  267. 

Mammalia,  16. 

Man,  16 ;  dental  formula,  18. 

Manatee,  16. 

Mandrill,  20,  25. 

Man-eater,  33. 

Margaritacidae,  253. 

Mareipobranchii  (pouch-gilled),  198. 

Marsupialta,  16, 107. 

Marten,  41. 

Mastiff,  38. 

Mataco,  106. 

May-beetle,  216. 

Medusas,  269. 

Medusoids,  272. 

Meleagridae,  141. 

Meleagris  gallopavo,  141 ;  ocellata,  141 ; 
mexicana,  141. 

Mellita  quinquefora,  260. 

Melospiza  melodia,  119. 

Menuridae,  124. 

Menura  superba,  125. 

Mephitis  mephitica,  40 ;  cut  of,  43. 

Merganser,  154. 

Mergus  americanus,  154. 

Mesentery  (membrane  keeping  the  in- 
testines in  place),  269. 

Metamorphosis  of  Insects,  205. 

Metridium  marginatum,  269. 

Migration  of  Birds,  162. 

Mimicry,  33. 

Mimus  polyglottus  (many-tongued),  115. 

Mink,  43. 

Mite,  226. 

Mocking-bird,  115. 

Mole,  16 ;  Common,  92 ;  Golden,  92,  94; 
habitation  of,  93 ;  Star-nosed,  93,  94. 

Mollusca.  241 ;  vera,  242. 

Molluscans,  241. 

Molluscoidga,  242. 

Mollusk,  241. 

Molothrus  (clamor)  pecoris  (of  a  flock), 
121. 

Molting  (shedding  feathers),  118. 


304 


INDEX. 


Mongra,  277. 

Monkey,  The,  16. 

Monodon  (one-tooth)  monoceros  (one- 
horn),  85. 

Monotremata  (one  orifice),  16,  108. 

Monotremes,  108. 

Moose,  69. 

Morrhua  americana,  193. 

Moschus  (musk)  moschiferus  (musk- 
bearing),  69,  73. 

Mosquitoes,  206,  213. 

Motacilla  alba  (white),  116. 

Mother  Gary's  chicken,  159. 

Moths,  206,  211. 

Mountain  Goat,  59,  63  ;  Sheep,  59,  67. 

Mouse,  95. 

Mud  Eel,  183. 

Murex,  245,  246. 

Murex  tenuispinue  (tender  spine),  245. 

Muricidae  (shell-fish),  245. 

Muridae  (Mus,  gen.  muris,  a  mouse),  95, 96. 

Mus  decuinanus,  large,  97 ;  inusculus 
(very  small),  97. 

Muscidae  (fly),  214. 

Mushroom  Coral,  268. 

Musk  Deer,  69, 73. 

Musk  Ox,  59. 

Musk  Rat,  97. 

Muscle-worm.  239. 

Mustek  americana,  40 ;  pennantii,  40. 

Mustelidae,  29,  40. 

Mya  arenaria,  250. 

Mycetes  ursinus,  25. 

Mygalidse  (mouse),  227. 

Mygale,  nest  of,  228. 

Myiarchus  crinitus,  125. 

Myriapoda  (many-footed),  203,  225. 

Myrmecophaga  (ant-devourer)  jubata 
(maned),  104. 

Myrmecophagidae,  104. 

Myrmeleonidae  (ant-lion),  223. 

Myrmeleon  obsoletus  (hidden),  224. 

Mytilidae,  252. 

Mytilus  edulis  (edible),  252. 

Naja  tripudians,  176. 

Narwhal,  84. 

NatatOres  (swimmers),  151. 

Nauclerus  (pilot)  furcatus  (forked),  135. 

Nautilidse  (sailor),  244. 

Necrophorus     (dead-carrier)     vestigator 

(tracker),  217. 
Nephila  plumipes,  227. 
Nereis,  236. 
Nervous  System,  13. 
Neuroptgra  (nerve-winged),  206.  253. 
Neuro-skeleton  (nerve  skeleton),  165. 
Newt,  183. 
Night  Hawk,  126. 
Nightingale,  116. 
Noctilionidse,  89. 
Noctilus  leporinus,  90. 
Noctilucae  (night-shiner),  275. 
Noctiluca     (night-shining)     m  i  1  i  a  r  i  s 

(pimply),  275. 
Northern  Hare,  102. 
Nucleobranchiata,  245,  248. 
Numida  meleagris,  140. 
Numididse,  140. 


Nummulites  ataica,  276. 

Obsolete  (obscure),  113. 

Odoutophora,  246. 

(Esophagus,  52. 

Operculum  (cover),  191. 

Ophidla,  165. 

Ophisaurus  (snake-lizard),  178. 

Opisthobranchiata,  245,  248. 

Opossum,  16.  107. 

Orang-outaug,  20,  22. 

Orchestia  longicornis,  232. 

Orders,  how  formed,  12. 

Organ-pipe  Ooral,  268. 

Onole,  Baltimore,  121. 

Ornithorhynchus  paradoxus  (paradox 
ical),  109. 

Ornithosaurla,  165. 

Orthoptgra  (straight-winged),  206,  222. 

Orthopters,  222. 

Ortyx  vi  -^iuianus,  143. 

Osteological  (bony),  39. 

Ostrea  edulis,  253. 

Ostrich,  113, 143;  African,  144;  S.  Amer- 
ican, 145 ;  Patagonian,  145. 

Otariidse,  29,  49. 

Otter,  40,  45. 

Ovibos  (sheep-ox)  moschatus  (musk),  59. 

Ovipositor  (egg-placer),  219. 

Oviparous,  15. 

Ovis  arie^,  59,  68 ;  montana,  59,  67. 

Owl,  1*3  :  Burrowing,  101. 

Ox,  53,  60  ;  Musk,  59. 

Oysters,  253,  253. 

Oyster-catcher,  146. 

Pachyglossa,  171. 

Palmate  (palm-shaped),  69. 

Panther,  33. 

Paper  Sailor,  242. 

PapilionidiB  (butterfly),  211. 

Papilio  machaon,  211. 

Paradiseidae  (paradise),  124. 

Paradise-bird,  Emerald,  124. 

Paradisea  apoda  (footless).  124. 

Parasitical  (living  on  others),  129. 

Parthenogenesis,  221. 

Partridge,  142. 

Parrot,  113 :  Carolina,  132. 

Passenger  Pigeon,  138 

Passgres,  113,  114. 

Passerine,  112. 

Pastinaca  hastata  (spear),  186. 

Pavo  (Peacock)  cristatus  (crested),  140. 

Pavonidae,  140. 

Peacock,  140. 

Pearly  Nautilus,  244. 

Peccary,  53,  74. 

Pedipalpi  (feel -feelers),  226,  228. 

Telagia  cyanella,  270. 

Pelecanidae.  155. 

Pelecanus     (Pelican)      erythrorhynchns 

(red-beaked),  155;  fuscus  (brown),  155, 
Pelican,  113 ;  White,  155 ;  Brown,  155. 
Penguin,  113,  159;   Jackass,  161;  Pata- 

gouian,  161. 
Pentacta  frondosa,  259. 
Pentacrinus  asteria,  264. 
Perca  flavescens,  191. 


INDEX. 


305 


Percidae,  191. 

Perdicidae,  142. 

Perdix  cinerea,  142. 

Peripatidae  (walk-around),  235. 

Peripatus  juliformis,  235. 

Perissodactyls,  52,  53. 

Perodicticus  potto,  hand  of,  28. 

Petrel,  Stormy,  158. 

Petromyzonidae,  198. 

Phalangidae,  228. 

Pharyngobranchii,  199. 

Phasianidae,  140. 

Pheasant,  Argus,  139. 

Philohela  minor,  146. 

Philomela  (song-lover)  luscinia,  116. 

Phoca  vitulina,  50. 

Phocidaa,  29,  50,  51. 

Phocsena  communis,  84. 

Phoeuicopteridae  (red-winged),  151. 

Phcenicopterus  ruber  (red),  152. 

Phrynosoma     (lizard-body)      c  o  r  n  u  t  a 

(horned),  172. 
Phyllostoma   (leaf-mouthed)     Bpectrum, 

89. 

PhyHoBtomidae.  89. 

Physalia  (bubble)  utriculus  (bladder),  271. 
Physeteridae,  84,  87. 
Physeter  macrocephalus   (large-headed), 

87. 

Picariae,  113,  125. 
PichiciSgo,  106. 
Picidse,  130. 

Picoides  hirsutus  (hairy),  131. 
Pickerel,  196. 
Pike,  196. 

Pimelodus  atrarius  195. 
Pinnipeds,  49. 
Pinnigrades,  49. 
Pinotheres  ostreum,  254. 
Pipe-fish,  190. 
Pi  pa  americana,  181. 
Pipidae,  181. 
Pieces,  184. 
Planaridae  (flat),  240a. 
Planocera  nebulosa,  238. 
Plantigrade  (t-oie-walker),  45. 
Plant-lice,  220. 
Plastron,  166. 
Plutaleidae,  147. 
Platalea  ajaja  (a-fidha),  147. 
Platessa  plana,  193. 
Platydactylus  (wide-fingered)  seychellen- 

sis,  173. 

Plutyrhine,  19,  25. 
Pleurobranchia  pileus,  265. 
Pleuronectidae,  194. 
Ploceidae,  123. 
Ploceue  socius,  124. 
Plotidae,  156. 
Plotus  anhinga,  156. 
Plover,  113, 145. 
Plumage,  111. 
Podicipidae,  159. 
Podiceps  cornutus,  160. 
Polyborus  (very  greedy)  tharus,  135. 
Polyp  (many-footed),  266. 
Polypidom  (house  of  the  polyp),  266. 
PolyzOa,  242,  257. 
Porcupine,  95, 101 ;  Ant-eater,  108. 


Porpoise,  Common,  84. 

Pouched  Gopher,  97. 

Powder-down,  147. 

Preening  (dressing  its  plumage),  110. 

Pristis  antiquorum  (of  the  ancients),  187. 

Proboscis  Monkey,  20,  24. 

Proboscidfia  (proboscis),  16,  79. 

Procellariidae  (tempest),  158. 

Procyon  lotor  (washer),  48. 

Procyonidae,  29,  48. 

Prong-horn,  53,  68. 

Prosobranchiata.  245. 

Protamoeba  (first-changing),  277. 

Proteus  anguinus,  183. 

Protoplasm  (first-form),  274. 

Protozoa  (first-life),  274. 

Pseudogryphus  (false-beaked)  california- 

nus,  137. 

Pseudopodla  (false-footed),  277. 
Psittaci,  113, 131. 
Psittacidae,  131. 

Pteromys  (winged-mouse)  volucella,  100. 
PteropOda,  249. 
Pteropodidae,  91. 
Pteropods,  245,  249. 
Pteropus  edulis,  91. 
Puffer,  190. 
Puffin,  159. 
Pulicidae,  215. 
Pulex  irritans,  215. 
Pulmonifgra,  245,  246. 
Puma,  31,  33. 
Pupa,  205. 

Purple  Gallinule,  151, 
Putorius  ermineus,  40 ;  cut  of,  42 ;  lutre- 

olue,  40 ;  cut  of,  43. 
PygopOdes,  113, 151,  159. 
Pyranga  rubra,  118. 
Python,  177. 

Quadrumana,  16 ;  Dental  formula  of,  19. 
Quail.  Common,  143 ;  European,  143. 

Rabbit,  Gray,  102 ;  Jackass,  10a 

Raccoon,  29. 

Raiidae,  186. 

Rail,  113 :  Virginian,  149. 

Rallidse,  149. 

Rallus  virginianus,  149  ;  elegans,  149. 

Rana  pipiens,    180;    hyla,  180;   tempo- 

raria,  180. 
Ranidse,  180. 

Rangifer  tarandus,  69 ;  caribou,  69. 
RaptOres  (robbers),  113, 132, 133. 
Rat,  16. 

Rattlesnake,  175. 
Raven,  122. 

Rays,  186 ;  egg  of,  189. 
Razor-shell,  251. 
Recurvirostra     (recurved-beak)    ameri* 

cana,  146. 

Recurvirostridae,  146. 
Red  Coral,  267. 
Reindeer,  69,  70. 
RemOra,  193. 
Reptilia  (creeping),  165. 
Resplendent  Trogon,  127. 
Respiration  of  a  bird,  112. 
Reticulum,  52. 


306 


ItfDEX. 


Retractile  (drawn-back),  29 ;  cuts  of,  30. 
Reversible  (turned-back),  129. 
Rhamphastidae  (beaked),  130. 
Rhamphastos  tucanus,  130. 
Rhea  darwinii,  145. 
Rhiuobatidse,  186. 

Rhinocerotidse  (horned-noee),  53,  78. 
Rhinoceros,  53 ;   unicornis  (one-horned), 

78  ;  bicornis  (two-horned),  78. 
Rhinolophidas  (nose-crested),  89. 
Rhizopoda  (root-footed),  275. 
Rhynchops    (snout-face)    nigra    (black), 

158. 

Rhynogryphus  (curve-nose)  aura,  136. 
Rice-bird,  120. 
Road-runner,  129. 
Robin-redbreast,  115. 
Robin,  114 ;  Golden,  121. 
Rodentla,  16,  95. 
Rodent,  95. 

Roebuck,  69,  70  ;  cut  of,  71. 
Rook,  123. 
Rosmaridae,  29,  51. 
Rosmarus  obeaus,  51. 
Roseate  Spoonbill,  147. 
Rose  Louse,  221. 
Rosy  Feather-star,  263. 
Rotatoria  (wheel-bearer),  238. 
Rotifers,  238. 
Rotifer  vulgaris,  240. 
Rumen,  52. 

Ruminant  Digestion,  52. 
Ruminants,  53. 

Sable,  40. 

Sacred  Monkey,  20,  24  ;  cut  of,  23. 

Saki,  25,  26.     ' 

Salamandra  maculosa,  182. 

Salamander,  182. 

Salamandridse,  182. 

Salmonidse,  196. 

Salmo  salar,  196. 

Salmon,  196. 

Salpidse,  257. 

Sal  pa  maxima,  256 

Sand-fleas,  229,  232. 

Sarcoptes  scabiei,  229. 

Sarcorhamphus    (flesh  beaked)    gryphus 

(curve),  137. 
Saw-fish,  186. 

Saxicolid*  (rock-inhabiter),  115. 
Scarlet  Tanager,  118. 
Scalops  aquaticus,  93. 
Scarabeidse,  216. 
Sciuridaa  (shade-tail),  95,  99. 
Sciurus  vulpinus,  99  ;  carolinensi.3,  99. 
Sclerobasic  (hard-base),  266. 
Sclerodermic  (hard-skin),  268. 
Scolytidae,  217. 
Scolytus  destructor,  218. 
Scolopacidse,  146. 
Scolopendridae,  225. 
Scolopendra  gigantea,  225. 
Scomberidse,  192. 
Scomber  vernalis,  192. 
Scorpion,  226,  228. 
Scorpionidse,  228. 
Sea  Anemone,  269. 
Sea  Bear,  49. 


Sea  Cow,  82. 

Sea  Cucumber,  259. 

Sea  Fan,  267. 

Sea  Lion,  49. 

Sea  Mat,  257,  258. 

Sea  Nymph,  51. 

Seal,  29  j  Eared,  29  ;  Common,  50. 

Semnopithecus  entellus.  20  ;  nasica,  20  • 
cut  of  stomach,  23. 

Sepia?,  243. 

Sepia  octopus,  243  ;  officinalis,  243. 

Serpula,  235. 

Serpulidse  (creeper),  236. 

Shark,  Hammerhead,  187, 189  ;  egg  of,  189. 

Shark-fishing,  187. 

Sheep,  Rocky  Mountain,  67  ;  Domestic, 
67:  Goitred,  68  ;  Tick  on,  215. 

Sheldrake,  154. 

Ship-worm,  251. 

Shore-lark,  120. 

Short-horn  Cow,  60. 

Shrew,  92. 

Shrike,  118. 

Sialia  sialis,  116. 

Siamang,  20  ;  cut  of,  22. 

Silk-worm,  212. 

Silphidse,  217. 

Siluridae,  195.  • 

Silnrus  glanis,  188. 

Silver-fish,  198. 

Simia  satyrus,  20. 

Simiida3, 19. 

Siphonata  (siphoned),  250,  251. 

SiphonophQra,  271. 

Siredon  lichenoides,  183. 

Siren,  51, 183. 

Sirenla,  16,  82. 

Skeleton,  preparation  of,  14;  bat,  88; 
bear,  46  ;  bird,  110  ;  camel,  53  ;  chim- 
panzee, 19  :  cow,  60  ;  elephant,  80  ; 
fish,  185 ;  frog,  179  ;  giraffe,  57 ;  horse, 
76;  lion,  29;  man,  19;  manatee,  83; 
mole,  92  :  orang,  19  ;  seal,  50  ;  serpent, 
174 ;  whale,  83. 

Skull,  carnivorous  animal,  29 ;  hog,  74  ; 
babiroussa,  75 ;  rodent,  95 ;  rattle- 
snake, 175. 

Skunk,  40  :  cut  of,  43. 

Sky-lark,  120. 

Sloth,  16  ;  Three-toed,  105. 

Sins,  248. 

Snail,  245. 

Snake,  Black,  176,  178;  Charming  of, 
175 ;  Copper-head,  175 ;  Glass,  173 ; 
Moccasin,  175;  Sea,  178;  Striped,  177; 
Water,  177. 

Snake-bird,  15& 

Snipe,  146. 

Sociable  Weaver-bird,  124 ;  nest  of,  123. 

Solenidse,  251. 

Solen  ensis,  251. 

Sole,  194. 

Somateria  mollissima,  154. 

Song  Sparrow,  119. 

Sorecidse,  92. 

Sorex  thompsoni,  93. 

Sparrow.  Song,  119 ;  Hawk,  134. 

Species  (division  of  a  genus),  12. 

Sperm  Whale,  87. 


INDEX, 


30? 


Spermophilus  tridecim  lineatus,  100. 

Sphenisci  (wedge),  113, 151, 161. 

Spheniscus  demersus  (plunger),  161. 

Sphingidse,  211. 

Spider  Monkey,  25. 

Spiders,  203,  226. 

Spinneret,  227. 

Sponsrida,  273. 

Spoonbill,  Roseate,  147. 

Sprat-sucker,  233. 

Squid,  87,  243 ;  Rock,  243. 

Squirrel,  95:  Black,  99:  Flying,  100; 
Fox,  99;  Gray,  99;  Stripccl,  100; 
Striped  Prairie,  100. 

Stag-beetle,  216. 

Staggers  in  sheep,  239. 

Star-fish,  261. 

Star-nosed  Mole.  94. 

SteganopSdes  (covered-feet),  113,  151, 
155. 

Stercorarius  parasiticus,  157. 

Sterna  wilsoni,  157. 

Sting-ray,  186. 

Stork,  147  ;  White,  147,  150. 

Stormy  Petrel,  158. 

Strepsilas  (stone-turner)  interpres  (di- 
viner). See  Haematopodidse. 

Strepsorhine  (twisted-nose),  19 ;  Mon- 
keys, 27. 

Strigidse,  133. 

Striped  Squash  Beetle,  217. 

Struthio  camelus,  144. 

Struthionidse,  143. 

Sturgeon,  188. 189. 

Sucker-fish,  193. 

Suidse,  53,  73. 

Sus  scrofa,  74  ;     babiroussa,  75. 

Swallow,  117 ;  Barn,  117 ;  Chimney,  127 ; 
Esculent,  127. 

Swan,  Trumpeter,  152 ;  Mute,  153 ; 
Americanus,  152. 

Swift,  128. 

Sword-fish,  191. 

Sylvicolidae,  116. 

Syngnathidee  (jaw-tied),  190. 

Syngnathus  peckianus,  190. 

Syrian  dye,  245. 

Tadpole  changes,  179. 

Taenia  solium,  240a. 

Talitrus  locusta,  232. 

Talpidae,  92. 

Tamias  (store-keeper)  striatus  (striped), 

Tanager,  Scarlet,  118. 
Tanagridie,  118. 
Tantalidse,  143. 
Tantalus  loculator,  148. 
Tape-worm,  240. 

Tapir  bicolor,  79  ;  americanus,  79. 
Tapiridse,  79. 
Taxidea  americana,  40. 
Teleostei  (complete  bone),  190. 
Tenuirostres  (slender-beaked),  112. 
Tent  Caterpillar,  212. 
Terebratulidae,  255. 
Terebratula  septentrionalis,  255. 
Teredinidse,  252. 
Teredo  navalis,  251. 


Terraes  bellicosus  (warlike),  209. 

Tern,  Wilson's,  157. 

Tesselated  (checkered),  186. 

Testudinata,  165, 166. 

Testudinidae,  16H. 

Tetrabranchiata  (four-gilled),  242,  243. 

Tetradecapoda,  229,  232. 

Tetraodon  (four-toothed)  turgidus  (swell- 
ing), 190. 

Tetraonidse,  141. 

Thalassidroma  (sea-wanderer)  pelagica 
(sea),  158. 

Thompson's  Shrew,  93. 

Thousand-legged  worm,  225. 

Thrush,  113 

Tick,  Horse,  Sheep,  Bird,  Bat,  215. 

Tiger,  31,  33. 

Toad,  Common,  181 ;  Surinam,  181 ; 
Horned,  172. 

Tortoise,  165,  166;  Bearded,  166,  167; 
River,  166, 167 ;  Snapping,  166, 168. 

Toucan,  130. 

Tree  Frog,  180. 

Trichechidse,  82. 

Trichechus  manatus,  82. 

Trichinidse,  239. 

Trichina  spiralis,  239. 

Trionychidse  (three-nailed),  166. 

Trionyx  ferox  (ferocious),  166. 
'  Triton,  51, 183. 

Triton  cristatus,  182 ;  cut  of,  183. 
!  Trochilidse,  128. 
)  Trochilus  colubris,  128. 

Troglodytes  niger,  20;  gorilla,  20;  cut 
of,  21. 

Trogon  resplendens,  127. 

Truncated  (cut  short),  166. 

Tubipora  (tube-porous)  musica,  268. 

Tunicata,  242,  255. 

Tnnicates  (social),  256. 

Turbot,  194. 

Turdidse,  114. 

Turdus  migratorius  (migratory),  114. 

Turkey,  113 ;  Common,  141 ;  Mexican. 
141 ;  Ocellated  (eyed),  141. 

Turkey  Buzzard,  137. 

Turnstone.    See  Hsematopodidse. 

Turtle,  nest  of,  169;  Green,  168. 

Tyrannidae,  125. 

Ungnlata  (hoofed),  16,  52.  53. 
UrodSla  (tail  apparent),  179. 
Ursidse,  29,  45,  46. 

Ursus  americanus,  46  ;  arctos  (northern), 
278  ;  horribilis,  46 ;  maritimue,  46. 

Vampire,  89. 

Vascular  (composed  of  small  vessels).  259. 

Ventral  (lower) :  Dorsal  (upper),  242,  255. 

Vertebrata  (turning-joint),  15. 

Vertebrates,  homologies  and  analogies 
of,  199  ;  of  same  animal,  199 ;  of  differ- 
ent animals,  201. 

Vespertilionidae,  89. 

Vespertilio  subulatus,  90. 

Vespidse,  208. 

Viper,  176. 

Virginia  Rail,  149. 

Viverridffi,  29,  36. 


308 


INDEX. 


Viverra  civetta,  36 ;  Genetta,  36 ;  Ichneu- 
mon, 37. 

Viviparous,  15. 

Voluta  imperialis,  245. 

Vorticels  (whirlpool),  274. 

Vulpes  vulgaris  (common),  37;  cut  of, 
40. 

Vulture,  133;  California,  137;  Black,  137. 

Vulturinse,  136. 

Wagtail,  White,  116. 

Walrus,  29,  51. 

Wapiti,  69,  70  ;  cut  of,  71. 

Wasps,  208. 

Water-beetles,  219. 

Water-mole,  109. 

Water-turkey,  156. 

Weasel,  29,  40 ;  cut  of,  42. 

Weaver-bird,  Social,  123. 

Web  of  Spider,  25:7. 

Weevil,  Plum,  218. 

Whale,  16:    Greenland,  85;  Sperm,  87; 

White,  84. 
Wheat-fly,  214. 
Whippoorwill,  126. 
White  Wagtail,  116. 
White  Stork,  147, 150. 


Whooping  Crane,  149, 150. 

Wild  Boar,  74. 

Wild  Cat,  36. 

Wilson's  Tern,  157. 

Wing,  Motion  of,  111. 

Wolf;  37,  38. 

Wolverine,  40. 

Worms,  203. 

Wood  Ibis,  148. 

Woodcock,  146. 

Wood  Duck,  154. 

Woodpecker,  113;  Banded  Three-toed, 
131;  Golden-winged,  181;  Ivory- 
billed,  130. 

Xiphiidse,  191. 

Xiphias  gladius  (sword),  191. 

Yak,  59,  62. 

Zebra,  77. 
Zebu,  59, 63. 
Zoology,  11. 
Zoophyte,  272. 
Zygaenidse  (yoked),  187. 
Zygaena  malleus,  187. 
Zygodactyles,  130. 


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